Introduction Database System Concepts

2nd Semester 2010-2011

Mr. Christopher Aris Alviola
Course Description This course is designed as an introduction to relational database concepts. Topics include: record storage and primary file organization, index structure for files, databases and database users, database system concepts and architecture, EntityRelationship(ER) and Enhanced E-R(EER) models.
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

Database System Concepts

Chapter 1: Introduction Part 1: Relational databases Chapter 2: Relational Model Chapter 3: SQL Chapter 4: Advanced SQL Chapter 5: Other Relational Languages Part 2: Database Design Chapter 6: Database Design and the E-R Model Chapter 7: Relational Database Design Chapter 8: Application Design and Development Part 3: Object-based databases and XML Chapter 9: Object-Based Databases Chapter 10: XML Part 4: Data storage and querying Chapter 11: Storage and File Structure Chapter 12: Indexing and Hashing Chapter 13: Query Processing Chapter 14: Query Optimization Part 5: Transaction management Chapter 15: Transactions Chapter 16: Concurrency control Chapter 17: Recovery System

Part 6: Data Mining and Information Retrieval Chapter 18: Data Analysis and Mining Chapter 19: Information Retreival Part 7: Database system architecture Chapter 20: Database-System Architecture Chapter 21: Parallel Databases Chapter 22: Distributed Databases Part 8: Other topics Chapter 23: Advanced Application Development Chapter 24: Advanced Data Types and New Applications Chapter 25: Advanced Transaction Processing Part 9: Case studies Chapter 26: PostgreSQL Chapter 27: Oracle Chapter 28: IBM DB2 Chapter 29: Microsoft SQL Server Online Appendices Appendix A: Network Model Appendix B: Hierarchical Model Appendix C: Advanced Relational Database Model

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Overview (Chapter 1).

Chapter 1: Introduction

provides a general overview of the nature and purpose of database systems.

how the concept of a database system has developed, what the common features of database systems are,

We explain

what a database system does for the user,

and how a database system interfaces with operating systems.

We also introduce an example database application: a banking enterprise

consisting of multiple bank branches.

This example is used as a running example throughout the book. This chapter is

motivational, historical, and explanatory in nature.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Database-System Applications Purpose of Database Systems View of Data Database Languages Relational Databases Database Design Object-based and Semistructured databases Data Storage and Querying Transaction Management

1.10 Data Mining and Analysis 1.11 Database Architecture 1.12 Database Users and Administrators 1.13 History of Database Systems

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1.1 Database System Applications

DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise

Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions

Database Applications:

Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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1.2 Purpose of Database Systems

In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file

systems
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:

Data redundancy and inconsistency

Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Need to write a new program to carry out each new task

Difficulty in accessing data

Data isolation multiple files and formats

Integrity problems

Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become buried in program code rather than being stated explicitly Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

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Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)

Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

Atomicity of updates

Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all Concurrent access by multiple users

Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time Security problems Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

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1.3 View of Data

Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among

the data.

type customer = record

customer_id : string; customer_name : string; customer_street : string; customer_city : integer;

end;
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also

hide information (such as an employees salary) for security purposes.

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Level of Abstraction
An architecture for a database system

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Instances and Schemas

Similar to types and variables in programming languages Schema the logical structure of the database

Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts and the relationship between them) Analogous to type information of a variable in a program Physical schema: database design at the physical level Logical schema: database design at the logical level Analogous to the value of a variable

Instance the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

Physical Data Independence the ability to modify the physical schema

without changing the logical schema

Applications depend on the logical schema

In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

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Data Models
A collection of tools for describing

Data Data relationships Data semantics Data constraints

Relational model Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design) Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)

Semistructured data model (XML)

Other older models:

Network model Hierarchical model

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1.4 Database Language Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate

data model

DML also known as query language

Two classes of languages

Procedural user specifies what data is required and how to get those data
Declarative (nonprocedural) user specifies what data is required without specifying how to get those data

SQL is the most widely used query language

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1.4 Database Language Data Definition Language (DDL)

Specification notation for defining the database schema

create table account ( account-number char(10), balance integer) DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) Database schema

Example:

Data storage and definition language Specifies the storage structure and access methods used Integrity constraints Domain constraints Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL) Assertions Authorization

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1.5 Relational Databases Relational Model

Example of tabular data in the relational model

Attributes

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A Sample Relational Database

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SQL
SQL: widely used non-procedural language

Example: Find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select customer.customer_name from customer where customer.customer_id = 192-83-7465
Example: Find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465 select account.balance from depositor, account where depositor.customer_id = 192-83-7465 and depositor.account_number = account.account_number Language extensions to allow embedded SQL Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be sent to a database

Application programs generally access databases through one of

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1.6 Database Design

The process of designing the general structure of the database:
Logical Design Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires

that we find a good collection of relation schemas.

Business decision What attributes should we record in the database? Computer Science decision What relation schemas should we have and how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas?

Physical Design Deciding on the physical layout of the database

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The Entity-Relationship Model

Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships

Entity: a thing or object in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other objects

Described by a set of attributes

Relationship: an association among several entities

Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

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1.7 Object-Based and Semistructured Databases Object-Relational Data Models

Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs to

deal with added data types.

Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic values

such as nested relations.

Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data,

while extending modeling power.

Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

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1.7 Object-Based and Semistructured Databases XML: Extensible Markup Language

Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C) Originally intended as a document markup language not a database language The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made XML

a great way to exchange data, not just documents

XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange formats. A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying XML

documents/data

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1.8 Data Storage and Querying Storage Management

Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the

low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.
The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:

Interaction with the file manager Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data Storage access File organization

Issues:

Indexing and hashing

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1.8 Data Storage and Querying Query Processing

1. Parsing and translation 2. Optimization 3. Evaluation

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Query Processing (Cont.)

Alternative ways of evaluating a given query

Equivalent expressions Different algorithms for each operation

Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be

enormous
Need to estimate the cost of operations

Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database must maintain

Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex expressions

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1.9 Transaction Management

A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical

function in a database application

Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains

in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the

concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

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1.10 Data Mining and Analysis

The process of semiautomatically analyzing large databases to find useful

patterns and rules

Similar to Knowledge Discovery in AI (also called Machine Learning), but

dealing with very large database

Decision Support System for Business

Data-Warehouse (DW) On-Line Analytical Processsing (OLAP)

Information Retrieval from unstructured textual data

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1.11 Database Architecture Overall System Structure

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1.11 Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by
the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
Centralized Client-server

Parallel (multi-processor)
Distributed

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Figure 1.7

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1.12 Database Users and Administrators Database Users

Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system
Application programmers interact with system through DML calls Sophisticated users form requests in a database query language Specialized users write specialized database applications that do not fit into

the traditional data processing framework

Nave users invoke one of the permanent application programs that have

been written previously

Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff

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1.12 Database users and Database Administrator Database Administrator

Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database

administrator has a good understanding of the enterprises information resources and needs.
Database administrator's duties include:

Schema definition

Storage structure and access method definition

Schema and physical organization modification Granting user authority to access the database Specifying integrity constraints

Acting as liaison with users

Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements

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1.13 History of Database Systems

1950s and early 1960s:

Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage

Tapes provide only sequential access

Punched cards for input Hard disks allow direct access to data Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use Ted Codd defines the relational data model

Late 1960s and 1970s:

Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work IBM Research begins System R prototype UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype

High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

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History (cont.)
1980s:

Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems

SQL becomes industrial standard

Parallel and distributed database systems Object-oriented database systems Large decision support and data-mining applications Large multi-terabyte data warehouses Emergence of Web commerce XML and XQuery standards Automated database administration

1990s:

2000s:

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Ch 1: Summary (1)
A database-management system(DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated

data and a collection of programs to access that data. The data describe one particular enterprise.
The primary goal of a DBMS is to environment that is both convenient and

efficient for people to use in retrieving and storing information.

Database systems are ubiquitous today, and most people interact, either directly

or indirectly, with databases many tiles every day.

Database systems are designed to store large bodies of information. The

management of data involves both the definition of structures for the storage of information and provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information.
In addition, the database system must provide for the safety of the information stored, in the face of system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results.

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Ch 1: Summary (2)
A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an abstract view

of the data.

That is, the system hides certain details of how the data are stored and maintained.
Underlying the structure of a database is the data model: a collection of

conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data semantics, and data constraints.
A data-manipulation language(DML) is a language that enables users to access

or manipulate data
The overall design of the database is called the database schema. A database

schema is specified by a set of definitions that are expressed using data definition language(DDL).

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Ch 1: Summary (3)
The relational data model is widely used to store data in databases. Other data

models are the object-oriented model, the object-relational model, and semistructured data models..
The entity-relationship(E-R) data model is a widely used data model, and it

provides a convenient graphical representation to view data, relationships,and constraints.

A database system has several subsystems.

The storage manager subsystem provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The query processor subsystem compiles and executes DDL and DML statements. The transaction manager subsystem is responsible for ensuring that the database remains in a consistent(correct) state despite system failures. The transaction manager also ensures that concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.

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Ch 1: Summary (4)
Database applications are typically broken up into front-end part that runs at

client machines and a part that runs at the back-end.

In two-tier architectures, the front-end directly communicates with a database running at the back-end.
In three -tier architectures, the back end part is itself broken up into an application server and a database server.
Database users can be categorized into several classes, and each class of

users usually uses different type of interface to the database.

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Ch 1: Bibliographical Notes (1)

We list below general purpose books, research paper collections, and Web sites

on databases. Subsequent chapters provide references to material on each topic outlined in this chapter.
Codd[1970] is the landmark paper that introduced the relational model.
Textbooks covering database system include Abiteboul et al.[1995]. Date[2003],

Elmasri and Navathe[2000], ONeil and ONeil[2000], Ramakrishnan and Gehrke[2000], Garcia-Molinar et al. [2001] and Ullman[1998].
Textbook coverage of transaction processing is provided by Bernstein and

Newcomer[1997] and Reuter[1993].

Several books contain collections of research papers on database management.

Among these are Bancilhon and Buneman[1990], Date[1986], Date[1990], Kim[1995], Zaniolo et al.[1997], and Hellerstein and Stonebreaker[2005].

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Ch 1: Bibliographical Notes (2)

A review of accomplishments in database management and an assessment of

future research challenges appears in Silberschatz et al.[1990], Silberschatz et al.[1996], Bernstein et al.[1990] and Abiteboul et al [2003].
The home page of the ACM Special Interest Group on Management of Data

(see www.acm.org/sigmod) provides a wealth of information about database research.

Database vendor Web sites(see the tools section below) provide details about

their respective products.

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Ch1: Tools
There are a large number of commercial database system in use today. The major ones include : IBM DB2(www.ibm.com/software/data),

Oracle(www.oracle.com), Microsoft SQL server(www.microsoft.com/sql), Informix(www.informix.com), and Sybase(www.sybase.com).

Some of these systems are available free for personal or noncommercial use, or for development, but are not free for actual development.
There are also a number of free/public domain database systems;

widely used ones include MySQL(www.mysql.com) and PostgresSQL(www.postgressql.org).

A more complete list of links to vendor Web sites and other information is

available from the home page of this book, at www.db-book.com

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Evaluation:

Lecture Grade= 60% Breakdown: 1. Quiz 1/3 2. Exam 2/3 Laboratory Grade=40% Breakdown: 1. Exercises 1/3 2. Exam 2/3
Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use

Academic Regulations
Students are responsible for being aware of college regulations in the

Academic Policy Handbook.

Cheating and Plagiarism are offences which will not be tolerated.

Such offences occur when a student violates the procedures governing the administration of examinations, tests or other means of evaluating student achievement in a subject or program.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use