Topic 2: CASTING

[2.1] INTRODUCTION
⮚ In A Casting Process, a Solid Material is First Melted,
Heated to Proper Temperature, and Sometimes Treated
to Modify its Chemical Composition
⮚ The Molten Material (Called Melt) is then Poured into a
Cavity or Mold that Contains it in the Desired Shape
during Solidification
⮚ Thus, in a Single Step, Simple or Complex Shapes can be
Made from any Material that can be Melted Economically
⮚ The Resulting Product can have Virtually any
Configuration the Designer Desires
⮚ Casting Exploits the Fluidity of a Liquid

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

 Schematic of Casting Process

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.2] INHERENT ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS
⮚ The Casting Processes have Distinct Advantages in the
Production of Complex Shapes such as
❖ Parts Having Hollow Sections or Internal Cavities,
❖ Parts that Contain Irregular Curved Surfaces (Except those Made
from Thin Sheet Metal),
❖ Very Large Parts
❖ Parts Made From Metals that are Difficult to Machine
🡪 Because Of These Features, Casting is One of the Most Important of the
Manufacturing Processes
⮚ Cast Parts Range in Size from a Fraction of an Inch and a
Fraction of an Ounce (i.e. the Individual Teeth on a
Zipper), to Over 30 Ft (10 M) and Many Tons (such as the
Huge Propellers and Stem Frames of Ocean Liners)
⮚ It is Almost Impossible to Design a Part that Cannot be
Cast by One Or More of the Commercial Casting Processes
⮚ Because Of Metallurgical Nature, Some Metals Can Only Be
Cast (Ex Cast Iron)
⮚ Need of Assembly may be Eliminated
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⮚ Highly Suitable To Mass Production (Automobile Industry)
⮚ Some Engineering Properties are Obtained More Favorably
in Cast Metal Like:
❖ Machinability and Vibration Damping Capacity (in Cast Iron)
❖ More Uniform Properties from Directional Point of View
❖ Strength and Lightness in Some Light Metal Alloys which can only
be Cast
❖ Good Bearing Properties (In Cast Bearing Materials)
⮚ The Various Processes are Distinguished Primarily by the
❖ Mold Material (Sand, Metal, or Other Material)
❖ Pouring Method (Gravity, Vacuum, Low or High Pressure)
All of them Share the Requirement that the Material
should Solidify in a Manner that Will Maximize the
Properties and Avoid the Formation of Different Casting
Defects
⮚ The Best Results and Lowest Cost are Achieved only if the
Designer Understands the Various Options and Tailors the
Design to Use the Most Appropriate Process in the Most
Efficient Manner
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[2.3] BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CASTING PROCESSES
SIX Basic Requirements Are Associated With Most of the
Casting Processes:

1. Mold Cavity
2. Melting Process
3. Pouring Technique
4. Solidification Process
5. Mold Removal
6. Cleaning, Finishing, and Inspection

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1. Mold Cavity:🡪
❖ Should have the Desired Shape and Size
❖ Must be Produced with Due Allowances for Shrinkage of the
Solidifying Material
❖ Any Geometrical Feature Desired in the Finished Casting must
Exist in the Cavity. Consequently, the Mold Material must be
Able to Reproduce the Desired Detail and also have a Refractory
Character so that it will not Contaminate the Molten Material
that it will Contain
❖ Either a New Mold must be Prepared for Each Casting (Single-
use Molds) OR
❖ The Mold must be Made from a Material that can Withstand
Repeated Use. The Latter Type, Known as Multiple-use Molds,
are Generally Made of Metal or Graphite. Since They Tend to be
Quite Costly, their Use is Generally Restricted to Large
Production Runs. The More Economical Single-use Molds Are
Usually Preferred For The Production Of Smaller Quantities
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2. Melting Process:🡪

❖ Must be Capable of Providing Molten Material Not Only at

the Proper Temperature, but also in the Desired Quantity,
With Acceptable Quality, and within a Reasonable Cost

3. Pouring Technique:🡪

❖ Must be Devised to Introduce the Molten Metal into the

Mold
❖ Provision should be Made for the Escape of All Air or Gases
Present in the Cavity Prior to Pouring, as well as those
Generated by the Introduction of the Hot Material
❖ The Molten Material is then Free to Fill the Cavity,
Producing a High-quality Casting that is Fully Dense and
Free of Defects

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4. Solidification Process:🡪

❖ Should be Properly Designed and Controlled

❖ Castings should be Designed so that Solidification
Shrinkage can Occur WITHOUT Producing Internal Porosity
or Voids
❖ Mold should NOT Provide Excessive Restraint to the
Shrinkage that Accompanies Cooling.
If this Happens then Casting may Crack when it is Still Hot
and its Strength is Low
5. Mold Removal:🡪 Easy Removal of Casting from the Mold

❖ Single-Use Molds are Broken Apart and Destroyed After

Each Casting 🡪 No Serious Difficulty
❖ With Multiple-Use Molds, Removal of Complicated
Shaped Casting is a Major Design Problem

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6. Cleaning, Finishing, and Inspection of Casting:🡪

❖ Extra Material is Attached

✔ Where the Material Entered the Cavity
✔ Along the Mold Parting Lines
❖ Mold Material Often Adheres to the Casting Surface
❖ All these Material should be Removed from the Finished
Casting

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ PATTERN: An Approximate Replica or Duplicate of the
Final Casting.
Molding Material is Packed Around the Pattern and Pattern is
Removed to Produce a Mold Cavity
⮚ FLASK: The Box that Contains the Molding Aggregate
⮚ COPE: is the Top Half of the Pattern, Flask, Mold, or Core
in a Two-part Mold
⮚ DRAG: Refers to the Bottom Half of the Pattern, Flask,
Mold, or Core in a Two-part Mold
⮚ CORE: A Sand Shape that is Inserted into the Mold to
Produce the Internal Features of a Casting, such as
Holes or Passages for Water Cooling
⮚ CORE PRINT: Region Added to the Pattern, Core, or Mold
which is used to Locate and Support the Core within
the Mold
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[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ MOLD CAVITY: Shaped Cavity Formed by the Combination
of Mold Material and Core into which the Melt is Poured and
Solidified to Produce the Desired Casting
⮚ RISER: An Extra Void Created in the Mold and also Filled
with Molten Material to Provide a Reservoir of Material that
can Flow into the Mold Cavity to Compensate for any
Shrinkage that Occurs during Solidification.
Riser MUST Contain the Last Material to Solidify Otherwise
Shrinkage Voids will be Located in the Final Casting and
NOT in the Riser
⮚ GATING SYSTEM: is the Network of Channels Used to
Deliver the Melt to the Mold Cavity
⮚ POURING CUP or POURING BASIN: Portion of the Gating
System that Initially Receives the Melt from the Pouring
Vessel and Controls its Delivery to the Rest of the Mold

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[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ SPRUE: The Vertical Portion of the Gating System
through which from the Pouring Cup, the Melt Travels Down
⮚ RUNNERS: Horizontal Channels of the Gating System
through which Melt Enters into the Mold Cavity
⮚ GATES: Controlled Entrances of the Gating System into the
Mold Cavity
⮚ VENTS: Additional Channels Included to Provide an Escape
for the Gases Generated within the Mold
⮚ PARTING LINE OR PARTING SURFACE: Interface that
Separates the Cope and Drag Halves of a Mold, Flask, or
Pattern and also the Halves of a Core in Some Core-making
Processes
⮚ DRAFT: is the Taper on a Pattern or Casting that Permits
it Easy Withdrawal from the Mold
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GATING SYSTEM

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 Functions of a Gating System Serves

FUNCTION-1: to Deliver the Melt, Poured into the Mold, to ALL

Sections of the Mold Cavity

FUNCTION-2: to Minimize Turbulent Flow, which Tends to Promote

Excessive Absorption of Gases and Oxidation of the Metal and Accelerates
Mold Erosion.
⮚ Short Sprues are Desirable, since they Minimize the Distance that the
Metal must Fall when Entering the Mold.
⮚ Rectangular Pouring Cups Prevent a Vortex of Funnel from Forming,
which Tends to Suck Gas and Oxides into the Sprue.
⮚ Tapered Sprues also Prevent Vortex Formation.
⮚ Large Sprue Well can be Used to Dissipate the Kinetic Energy of the
Falling Stream.

FUNCTION-3: Gating System should also be Designed to Trap Dross

and Sand Particles and Keep them from Entering the Mold Cavity.
Lower-density Particles will Rise to the Top of the Molten Material if
Sufficient Time is Given

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[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ CORE BOX: The Mold or Die Used to Produce Casting Cores
⮚ CHAPLETS: Small Metal Supports Positioned Between the Core
and Mold Cavity Surfaces to Support the Weight of those Cores
which do NOT Completely Pass through the Castings and to
Keep it Away from being Moved or Float by the Molten Metal
🡪 Use of Chaplets should be Minimized
because they Become an Integral Part
of the Finished Casting and may Cause
Defects or be a Location of Weakness.
🡪 Chaplets should be Made of the
Same or at Least Comparable
Composition as the Casting Material.
🡪 Chaplets should be Large Enough so
that they do Not Completely Melt and
Permit the Core to Float but Small
Enough so that their Surface Melts and
Fuses with the Metal being Cast.
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 Different types of chaplets

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ CHEEK: Third Segment of the
FLASK Used to Facilitate the
Molding of Shapes Containing
Reentrant Angles or Sections
i.e. Round Pulley with Recessed
Groove around its Perimeter

⮚ CHILL: Masses of High Heat Capacity and High Thermal

Conductivity Material that Placed in the Mold Adjacent to the
Casting
⮚ To Assist the Risers in Performing their Job
⮚ To Accelerate the Cooling of Various Regions
⮚ To Promote Directional Solidification
⮚ To Increase the Effective Feeding Distance of a Riser
⮚ To Reduce Number of Risers Required for Casting
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[2.4] CASTING TERMINOLOGY (Contd.)
⮚ MOLDING SAND: Sand Used to Prepare the Mold

⮚ FACING SAND: The Sand Used Next to the Pattern for

Obtaining Cleaner and Smoother Casting Surfaces

⮚ BACKING SAND: The Reconditioned Sand Used in Bulk

after the Facing Sand

⮚ PARTING SAND: The Sand Sprinkled on the Pattern and to

the Parting Surfaces of the Mold Halves to Prevent
Adherence of Molding Sand
⮚ BOTTOM BOARD: Board Over which Halves of the Flask
are Kept while Preparing the Mold
⮚ CASTING: The Term Used to Describe both the Process and
the Product when the Melt is Poured and Solidified in a Mold

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[2.5] PATTERNS
⮚A Pattern is an APPROXIMATE (Modified in Accordance with the
Requirements of the Casting Process, ,Material being Cast, and the
Molding Technique being Used) Replica or Duplicate of the Object to be
Made by the Casting Process. It is the Principal Tool during the Casting
Process.
⮚Design and Construction of a Pattern:🡪 First Step in Making a
Casting
⮚Quality of the Casting Produced Depends Largely on the Pattern
Material, its Design and Construction.
⮚Use of Expensive Patterns can be Justified only when the Quantity of
Castings Required is Relatively Substantial.
⮚When only Few Castings are Needed, a Loose Pattern Made from a Soft
Variety of Wood Serves the Purpose.

The pattern material is determined primarily by the number of

castings to be made but is also influenced by the size and shape of the
casting, the desired dimensional precision, and the molding process:

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[2.5.1] Preparatory Work For a Patternmaker:
To Decide About
⮚ Type and Form of Material to be Used
⮚ Type of Pattern to Suit the Method of Molding to be Adopted
⮚ Provision of Core Boxes
⮚ Constructional Details Including Provision of Loose Pieces, Core Prints
⮚ Considerations as Regards to the Value of Allowances to be Used
⮚ Method of Gating and Feeding to be Followed
⮚ Provision of Various Foundry Aids

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.5.2] Pattern Materials
[2.5.2.1] SELECTION CRITERIA FOR PATTERN MATERIALS
⮚ Volume of Production of Castings
⮚ Service Requirements, i.e. Quantity, Quality and Intricacy of Castings,
Minimum Thickness Desired, Degree of Accuracy and Finish Required
⮚ Possibility of Design Changes
⮚ Type of Molding Method and Equipment to be Used
⮚ Possibility of Repeat Orders.

[2.5.2.2] DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS of the PATTERN

MATERIAL
⮚ Easily Worked, Shaped, and Joined
⮚ Light Weight for Facility in Handling and Working
⮚ Strong, Hard, and Durable (i.e. High Strength-to-weight Ratio)
⮚ Resistant to Wear and Abrasion, Corrosion, and Chemical Action
⮚ Dimensionally Stable and Unaffected by Variations in Temperature
and Humidity
⮚ Cheap and Easily Available
⮚ Can Be Repaired or Even Re-used
⮚ Ability to take a Good Surface Finish
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[2.5.2.3] TYPES of PATTERN MATERIALS
[A] Wood and Wood Products(Pine, Mahogany, Teak, Walnut, and Deodar)
[B] Metals and Alloys
[C] Plasters
[D] Plastics and Rubber
[E] Wax
⮚ Seasoning of wood Minimizes the Effect of Subsequent Moisture
Variations by Adjusting the Water Content of Wood
⮚ Seasoning Can be done by Natural or Artificial Methods.
⮚ Natural Seasoning: The Wood is Stacked Suitably in Open Spaces
and Subjected to Air Drying for a Period of Up To one Full Cycle of
Weather Conditions or Keeping the Timber Immersed in Flowing
Water, so that a Large Part of the Moisture is Washed Away by
Osmosis and then Air Drying it For a Shorter Duration.
⮚ Artificial Seasoning: The Timber is Stacked in Drying Kilns and
Subjected to Fast air Drying by Allowing Hot Air to Pass Through the
Kiln Chamber.
⮚ Electrical Seasoning: Fairly Large Sections of Timber are Exposed
to a High Frequency Electric Field Such That the Moisture Content is
Brought Down to the Desired Level within Few Minutes.
⮚ Chemical Seasoning: Wood is Kept Immersed in Suitable Salt
Solutions and Then Exposed to Air for Drying.

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[B] Metals and Alloys
⮚ Metal Patterns are More Expensive but are More Dimensionally
Stable and More Durable.
⮚ Metallic patterns are Used where Repetitive Production of Castings
is Required in Large Quantities.
⮚ Metals Commonly Used are Aluminium Alloys, Cast Iron, Steel and
Copper Based Alloys such as Brass or Bronze.
⮚ A Comparative Evaluation of these Metals is Given in Table below:
Factors Grey C.I. Steel Al Brass
Availability Good Good Good Good
Castability Good Difficult Less difficult Good
Machinability Good Good Very good Very good
Surface Finish Good Good Very good Very good
Lending to Good Good Good Very good
Modification
Weight Very heavy Very heavy Very light Heavy
Brittleness High Low Low Low
Oxidation Tendency Yes Yes No No
Requiring Machining Yes Less Not much Not much
Cost Low Low Medium High
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[C] Plasters
⮚ Gypsum Plaster (Plaster of Paris) High Compressive Strength, i.e.
up to 300 kg/cm2. Ordinarily Available Plasters Expand on
Solidification. By Choosing Plaster of Proper Expansion Rate, it is
Possible to Completely Offset the Shrinkage of the Casting.
[D] Plastics and Rubbers
⮚ Hard Plastics, such as Urethanes, offer Another Alternative, and are
Often Preferred with Processes that Use Strong, Organically Bonded
Sands that Tend to Stick to Other Pattern Materials.

⮚ In the Full-mold Process, Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is used while

Investment Casting Uses Wax Patterns.
⮚ Both Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Materials are Used for Pattern
Making.
⮚ Thermosetting Plastics are Used for Making Long-lasting and
Durable Patterns
⮚ Thermoplastic Materials are Used for Short-runs or Piece work.
⮚ In the Thermosetting Variety, Epoxy and Polyester Resins have
Found Increasing use.
⮚ In Thermoplastic type, Polystyrene has become Very Popular.
⮚ Silicone Rubbers have been Used for Making Dies in Special Cases.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

Epoxy resin Patterns have Become Very Popular Because of their
Easily Castable Nature which Renders Machining Superfluous
⮚ High Strength-to-weight Ratio (5.4 compared to 4.0 of Aluminum
Alloys and 1.2 of Cast Iron)
⮚ Low Cost of Working,
⮚ Good Resistance to Wear and Abrasion, and
⮚ Complete Immunity from the Action of Moisture and the Effect of Mild
Heating when in Contact with Sand.

[E] Waxes
⮚ Wax patterns are excellent for the Investment Casting Process.
⮚ Commonly Used Waxes Paraffin wax, Camauba wax, Shellac wax,
Bees wax, Cerasin Wax, and Microcrystalline Wax.
⮚ Desired Properties in a Good wax pattern include
❖ Low ash content (up to 0.05%),
❖ Resistance to the primary coat material used for investment,
❖ High Tensile Strength and Hardness,
❖ Good Wettability,
❖ Resistance to Oxidation,
❖ Low Shrinkage,
❖ Low Melting Point
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.5.3] Types of Pattern
⮚Single Piece Pattern ⮚ Follow Board pattern
⮚Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern ⮚ Sweep Pattern
⮚Gated Pattern ⮚ Skeleton Pattern
⮚Cope and Drag Pattern
⮚Match Plate pattern
⮚Loose Piece pattern

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⮚ Simplest and Least Inexpensive [2.5.3.1] Single Piece or
to Make. SOLID Pattern
⮚ They are Made of a Single Piece
⮚ It is Used for Relatively Simple
Shapes, Very Small Scale
Production, in Prototype
Development.
⮚ This Pattern should be Entirely in
the Drag.
⮚ To Avoid Withdrawal Problem, One
of the Surfaces should be Flat so
that it can be Used as Parting Castin Pattern
Plane g
[2.5.3.2] Split or Two Piece Pattern
⮚ When Contour of the Casting Makes
its Withdrawal from the Mold
Difficult, or when the Depth of the
Casting is Too High, 🡪 Spit the
Pattern into Two Parts.
⮚ Used for Intricate Castings.
⮚ Split Surface of the Pattern is
Same as the Parting Plane of the
Split Pattern Mold.
⮚ Dowel Pins are Used to Align Two
Halves.
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[2.5.3.3] Gated Patten
⮚ This is an Improvement Over the Simple Pattern where the
Gating and Runner System are Integral Part of the Pattern.
⮚ This Eliminates the Hand Cutting of the Runners and Gates and help
in Improving the Productivity of a Molder.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.5.3.4] Cope and Drag Pattern
⮚ This is Similar to Split Patterns.
⮚ When Large Quantities are to be
Produced, or when the Casting is
Large, it may be desirable to
have the Cope and Drag Halves of
Split Patterns Attached to
Separate Metal or Wooden Plates
along with the Alignment Pins to
Produce Cope-and-Drag Patterns.
⮚ This Enables Independent
Molding of the Cope and Drag
Segments of a Mold. Large Molds
can be Handled more Easily in
Separate Segments, and Small
Molds can be made at a Faster
Rate.
⮚ These Types of Patterns are Used
for Heavy Castings which are
Inconvenient for Handling as also
for Continuous Production.

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[2.5.3.5] Match Plate Pattern
⮚ In Match Plate Pattern, Cope and Drag Patterns along with the Gating
and the Risering are Mounted on a Single Plate.
⮚ On one Side of the Match Plate the Cope Flask is Prepared and on the
other Side Drag Flask. After Molding when Match Plate is Removed, a
Complete Mold with Gating is Obtained by Joining the Cope and the
Drag Together.
⮚ The Complete
Pattern with
Match Plate is
Entirely Made of
Metal, Usually
Aluminum.
⮚ Several Patterns
may be Fixed to a
Single Match Plate.
⮚ Generally Used for
Small Castings
with Higher
Dimensional
Accuracy and
Large Production.
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[2.5.3.7] Follow Board Pattern
⮚ This Type of Pattern is Adopted for the Castings having Some
Structurally Weak Portions which if Not Supported Properly, are
Likely to Break Under the Force of Ramming.
⮚ The Bottom Board is Modified as a Follow Board to Closely Fit
the Contour of the Weak Pattern and thus Support it During the
Ramming of the Drag.
⮚ During the Preparation of the Cope, No Follow Board is
Necessary Because the Sand which is Compacted in the Drag will
Support the Fragile Pattern.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.5.3.8] Sweep Pattern
⮚ It is Used to Sweep the Complete Casting by Means of a Plane
Sweep.
⮚ Sweep Pattern is Used for Generating Large Axi-Symmetric Or
Prismatic Shapes Such as Bell Shaped or Cylindrical Shape.
⮚ It Avoids the Cost of a Three Dimensional Pattern.
⮚ Sweep Pattern is Particularly Suitable for Very Large Castings such as
the Bells for Ornamental Purposes which are Generally Cast in Pit
Molds.

(C
)
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[2.5.4] Pattern Allowances
🡪 The Dimensions of the Pattern are Slightly Different from the Final
Dimensions of the Casting.
🡪 The Modifications that are Incorporated into a Pattern are Called
Pattern Allowances which are of Following FIVE Types:
❖ Shrinkage Allowance: To
Compensate for Solid
Cooling (i.e. Cooling from
Freezing Temperature or
Range to Room
Temperature)
❖ Draft and Shake
Allowance: To Facilitate
Easy Withdrawal of Pattern
from Mold
❖ Machining or Finish
Allowance: Extra Amount
of Material to be Provided
on the Casting so as to
Impart Better Finish to it
❖ Distortion Allowance: To Various Allowances Incorporated
Compensate for Distortion into a Pattern of a Casting.
of Weaker Sections of the
Casting
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.5.4.1] Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
⮚ Most Metals and Alloys Undergo
Noticeable Contraction once they
are Poured in the Mold Cavity and Liquid Cooling
Begin to Cool. There are THREE
Principal Stages of Shrinkage:
PHASE-1: Shrinkage of Liquid
Melt (LIQUID COOLING) from
Pouring to Freezing Temp Solid
Cooling
PHASE-2: Solidification
Shrinkage due to Phase Change
at Freezing Temperature (Metals)
or Range (Alloys)
PHASE-3: Shrinkage of
Solidified Casting (SOLID
COOLING) due to Cooling from
Freezing to Room Temperature
⮚ Shrinkage due to Phase-1 and 2
are Taken Care of by Using
RISERS while Shrinkage
Allowance Takes Care of
Shrinkage due to Phase-3
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[2.5.4.1] Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
⮚ AFTER Solidification, a Casting Continues to Contract as it Cools, the
Amount of this Contraction may as Much as 2%

⮚ To Produce the Desired Final Dimensions, the External Dimensions

of the Pattern Must be Made Slightly Larger than the Casting.
The Exact Amount of this Compensation Depends on the Metal that is
being Cast (See the Table on Next Page)

⮚ If a Core is to be Used to Form a Hole or Interior Cavity, it also

Must be Made Oversized to Compensate for Shrinkage (all of the
Material Surrounding the Hole or Cavity will Contract, Making the
Hole or Cavity Smaller).

⮚ Shrinkage Allowances are Often Incorporated into a Pattern through

Use of Special Shrink Rules, Measuring Devices that are Larger than
a Standard Rule by the Desired Amount of Shrink Allowance.

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MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.5.4.2] Draft Allowance
⮚ In Many Casting Processes, Mold
Material is Formed Around the
Pattern and the Pattern is then
Removed to Create the Necessary
Cavity. To Facilitate Pattern
Removal, Molds are can be Made
in Two or More Sections.
⮚ If the Pattern Contains Surfaces
that are Perpendicular to the Parting
Line or Parallel to the Direction of
Pattern Withdrawal, the Friction
Between the Pattern and the Mold,
or any Horizontal Movement of the
Pattern during Extraction may
Damage the Mold. This Damage is
Particularly Severe at the
Corners where the Mold Cavity
Intersects the Parting Surface.
⮚ By Incorporating a Slight Taper, or
Draft, on all Surfaces Parallel to the
Direction of Withdrawal, this
Difficulty can be Minimized.
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[2.5.4.3] Shake Allowance

⮚ In Some Casting Processes (such as Sand Casting), Before

Withdrawing the Pattern from the Mold, the Pattern is Rapped or
Shaken all Around the Vertical Faces to Enlarge the Mould Cavity
Slightly to Facilitate its Removal. The Original Pattern Dimensions
have to be Reduced to Account for this Increase in Dimension.

⮚ It is a Negative Allowance and is to be Applied ONLY to those

Dimensions which are Parallel to the Parting Plane (i.e. Width
or Thickness and NOT to Height).

⮚ Shake Allowance is Highly Dependent on the Foundry Personnel and

Practices Involved.

⮚ One Way of Reducing Shake Allowance is to Increase the Draft

Which can be Removed During the Subsequent Machining.

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[2.5.4.4] Machining or Finish Allowance
⮚ If a Casting has Machinable Surfaces then it is Necessary to Provide a
Machining Allowance, or Finish Allowance on the Pattern.
⮚ Ordinary Sand Castings have Rougher Surfaces than those of
Shell-Mold Castings. Die Castings are Sufficiently Smooth so that
Very Little or no Metal has to be Removed, and Investment
Castings Frequently Require no Additional Machining.
⮚ Also, Ferrous Materials would have Scales on the Skin which are
to be Removed by Cleaning. Hence Extra Material is Provided which is
to be Subsequently Removed by Machining or Cleaning Process,
Called Machining Allowance.
⮚ Consequently, the Designer should Relate the Finishing Allowance
to the Casting Process and also Remember that Draft may Provide
Part or all of the Extra Metal Needed for Machining.
⮚ Machining Allowance Provided Depend on the
❖ Metal Cast
❖ Type of Molding Used
❖ Class of Accuracy Required on the Surface
❖ Complexity of Surface Details
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
⮚ One Way of Reducing the Machining Allowance is to Keep Entire
Casting in the Drag Flask such that Dimensional Variation and other
Defects due to the Parting Plane are Reduced to Minimum
Machining Allowance on Patterns for Sand Casting

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.5.4.5] Distortion Allowance
⮚ A Metal when just Solidified, is very Weak and therefore is Likely to
be Distortion Prone. This is Particularly True for Weaker Sections such
as Long Flat Portions of V-, U-, H or I-Section which may have
Thin and Long Sections which are Connected to Thick Sections.
⮚ For Example: U-shaped Section may be Restrained by the Mold,
while the Base of the U is Free to Shrink. This Restraint will Result
in a Final Casting with Outwardly Sloping Arms.
⮚ Long Horizontal Sections Tend to Sag in the Center Unless
Adequate Support is Provided by Suitable Ribbing.
⮚ Distortion Depends Greatly on Particular Configuration of Casting
⮚ Shape of Pattern is given a Distortion (Camber) of Equal Amount
in the Opposite Direction of the Likely Distortion Direction.

Required Casting Distorted Casting Cambered Pattern

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.6] MOLDING MATERIALS
Choice of Molding Materials is Based on their Processing Properties.
⮚ Sand: Green Sand (Mixture of Sand, Clay, Water, and Some Organic
Additives) is the Most Commonly Used
⮚ Metals and Alloys: Are Used in Multiple-Use Mold Casting Processes
⮚ Plaster: Plaster of Paris (or Calcium Sulfate or Gypsum), with
Various Additions to Improve Green Strength, Dry Strength,
Permeability, Castability.
⮚ Ceramic: Ceramic Molds are Similar to Plaster Molds, Except that
the Mold can Withstand the Higher Melting Point Metals.
⮚ Graphite: Powdered Graphite can be Combined with Cement,
Starch, and Water and Compacted around a Pattern
⮚ Rubber: Several Types of Artificial Elastomers can be
Compounded in Liquid Form and Poured Over a Pattern to Form a
Semi-Rigid Mold. Rubber Molds are Sufficiently Flexible to Permit
Stripping from an Intricate Pattern or Shapes with Reentrant
Surfaces. Unfortunately, Rubber Molds are Suitable only for Small
Castings of Low Melting Point Materials.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.7] MOLDING SAND
[2.7.1] Desired Properties of Molding Sand
⮚ Refractoriness: Ability of the Molding Sand to Withstand the High
Temperatures of the Melt so that it does NOT Fuse with the Melt.
🡪 Presence of Sand Imparts this Property to the Molding Sand.
⮚ Cohesiveness or Bond: Due to this Property, Rammed Molding
Sand Particles are Bonded Together once the Pattern is
Withdrawn from the Mold.
🡪 Cohesiveness is Obtained by Coating the Sand Grains with
Clays that Become Cohesive when Moistened.
⮚ Permeability: Property of the Molding Sand due to which it Allows
the Gases Inside the Mold (During Solidification of Casting) to
Escape to the Surroundings.
🡪 Permeability is a Function of the
✔ Size of the Sand Particles,
✔ Amount and Type of Clay or Bonding Agent,
✔ Moisture content,
✔ Compacting Pressure
⮚ Collapsibility: It is the Property due to which Sand Mold
Automatically Collapses after Solidification of the Casting to
Allow Free Contraction of the Cast Material.
In the Absence of Collapsibility, Contraction of the Cast Material is
Hindered by the Mold Resulting in Tears and Cracks in the Casting.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
⮚ Flowability or Plasticity: Property of Molding Sand to Flow Around
and Over the Pattern to Acquire the Desired Shape during Molding.
⮚ Green Strength: Property of the Green Sand to Retain the Shape of
the Mold. The Strength Refers to the Compressive Strength
Molding Sand Containing Moisture is Termed as Green Sand.
⮚ Dry Strength: Ability of the Dry Sand to Retain the Mold Cavity and
at the Same Time Withstand the Metallostatic Forces.
When the Moisture in the Molding Sand is Completely Expelled, It is
Called Dry Sand..
⮚ Hot Strength: Strength of the Sand Required to Hold the Shape of
the Mold Cavity when All the Moisture of Sand has been
Eliminated and the Sand Reaching a High Temperature when the
Melt in the Mold is Still in the Liquid State.
⮚ Adhesiveness: Property of the Molding Sand by which it is Capable
to Adhere to the Surface of the Molding Flask.
⮚ Other Requirements:
❖ Cheap and Easily Available,
❖ Low Thermal Expansion Coefficient,
❖ Reusable,
❖ Chemically Inert and Non Sticking to the Casting Surface.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.7.2] Composition of Molding Sand
⮚ Material Used for Making Green Sand Molds Consists of
❖ Sand (70-85%): to Provide Refractoriness
❖ Clay (10-20%): To Act as Binder, along with Water, Impart
Tensile and Shear Strength to the Molding Sand
❖ Water (3-6%): to Activate the Clay and Provide Flowability or
Plasticity
❖ Organic Additives (1-6%): To Enhance Desired Sand Properties
⮚ Exact Composition may Vary Slightly Depending on whether Casting is
Ferrous or Non-Ferrous
⮚ Good Molding Sand always Represents a Compromise Between
Conflicting Factors such as
❖ Size of Sand Particles,
❖ Amount of Bonding Agent (such as Clay),
❖ Moisture Content,
❖ Organic Matter
⮚ Molding Sand Composition must be Carefully Controlled to Assure
Satisfactory and Consistent Results.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.7.2.1] TYPES of SANDS: FOUR Silica, Zircon, Olivine, Chromite
A. Silica Sand: Silica Grains Forms the Majority of the Molding Sand
(up to 96%), Rest being the Other Oxides such as Alumina, Sodium
and Magnesium Oxide. These Oxides (Impurities) should be
Minimized to about 2% since they Affect the Fusion Point of the Silica
Sands.
❖ Main Source is the River Sand which is Used with or without
Washing.
❖ Shape of the grains may be Round, Sub-angular, Angular and
very Angular.
B. Zircon Sand (Zirconium Silicate ZrSiO4): Typical Composition is
ZrO2-66.25%; SiO2-30.96%; Al2O3-1.92%; Fe2O3-0.74% and Traces
of Other Oxides.
❖ It is Very Expensive.
❖ It has a Fusion Point of about 2400°C
❖ Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, High Thermal
Conductivity, High Chilling Power, and High Density.
❖ It Requires a very Small Amount of Binder (about 3%).
❖ It is Generally Used to Manufacture Precision Steel Castings
Requiring Better Surface Finish.
C. Olivine Sand: Contains Minerals Fosterite (Mg2Si04) and Fayalite
(Fe2Si04).
❖ It is a very Versatile Sand and the Same Mixture can be used
for a Range of Steels.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
D. Chromite Sand: It is Crushed from the Chrome Ore whose Typical
Composition is
Cr2O3-44%; Fe203-28%; SiO2-2.5%; CaO-0.5%; and Al2O3 + MgO -
25%.
❖ Fusion Point is about 1800 °C.
❖ It Requires a Very Small Amount of Binder (about 3%).
❖ It is Used to Manufacture Heavy Steel Castings Requiring
Better Surface Finish.
Comparison of Foundry Base Sand Properties

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.7.2.2] CLAY
⮚ Clay is Generally Used as Binding Agent in the Molding Sand to Provide
the Strength, Because of its Low Cost and Wider Utility.
⮚ The Most Popular Types of Clay Used are
❖ Kaolinite or Fire Clay (Melting Point: Range of 1750 to 1787°C )
❖ Bentonite (Melting Point: Range of 1250 to 1300 0C), Two Types
✔ Sodium Bentonite or Western Bentonite
✔ Calcium Bentonite or Southern Bentonite
⮚ Bentonite can absorb More Water which Increases its Bonding Power.
⮚ Sodium Bentonites Produce Better Swelling Properties (volume
Increases Some 10 To 20 Times), High Dry Strength which Lowers the
Risk of Erosion, Better Tolerance of Variations in Water Content, Low
Green Strength and High Resistance to Burnout which Reduces Clay
Consumption.
⮚ In Contrast, Calcium Bentonites have Low Dry Strength but Higher
Green Strength.
[2.7.2.3] WATER: Clay is Activated by Water so that it Develops the
Necessary Plasticity and Strength.
❖ Amount of Water Used should be Properly Controlled Because a
Part of the Water Absorbed by Clay Helps in Bonding while
the Remainder up to a Limit Helps in Improving the Plasticity
while More than that would Decrease the Strength and
Formability.
❖ Normal Percentages of Water Used are from 2 to 8%.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
 Variation of Green Compressive
Strength with Grain Size

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.7.2.4] ADDITIVES: May be Added to Enhance the Specific Properties.
🡪 Since Molding Material is often Reclaimed and Recycled, the
Temperature of the Mold during Pouring and Solidification is also
Important.
🡪 If Organic Materials are Added to Provide Collapsibility, a Portion will
Bum during the Pour. Some of the Mold Material may have to be
Discarded and Replaced with New One.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ It is also Important for Each Sand Grain to be Coated Uniformly
with the Additive Agents.
⮚ This is Achieved by Putting the Ingredients through a Muller, a
Device that Kneads, Rolls, and Stirs the Sand.
⮚ Following Figure Shows both a Continuous and Batch-type Muller,
which Use Blades and Wheels to Produce the Mixing.
⮚ After Mixing, the Sand is Often Discharged through an Aerator, which
Fluffs it so that it does not Pack Too Hard during Handling.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.7.3] Variables Affecting Molding Sand Properties
[2.7.3.1] Sand Grain Shape and Size
⮚ Shape and Size of the Sand Grains Greatly Affects the Various
Molding Sand Properties. Sand Grain Size could be Coarse or Fine
(Higher the the Grain Fineness Number (GFN) Lower the Grain Size).
⮚ Coarse Grains have More Void Space between the Grains
Consequently Provide Good Permeability and Better Resistance to
High Temperature Melting and Expansion,
⮚ Finer Grains have Lower Permeability, however they Provide
Better Surface Finish to the Casting Produced.
⮚ Higher the Grain Size, Higher would be the Refractoriness.
⮚ Purity of Sand Grains Improves the Refractoriness.
⮚ Distribution of the Grain Size also Plays an Important Role.
Uniform-Size Grains Give Good Permeability, while a Wide
Distribution of Sizes Enhances Surface Finish.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ Grain Shape could be Compounded, Angular, Sub-angular and
Round.
⮚ Round Grains Give Good Permeability and Minimize the Amount
of Clay Required because of their Lower Surface Area.
⮚ Angular Grains Give Better Green Strength because of the
Mechanical Interlocking of the Grains.

[2.7.3.2] Clay and Water

⮚ An Optimum Amount of Water is to be Used for a Given Clay
Content to Obtain Maximum Green Compression Strength.
⮚ During the Sand Preparation Clay is Uniformly Coated around the
Sand Grains. Water (Certain Amount Depending upon the Amount of
Clay) then Reacts with the Clay and Forms a Linkage of Silica-Water-
Clay-Water-Silica (or clay) throughout the Moulding Sand.
⮚ Any Additional Amount of Water Increases the Plasticity and Dry
Strength but Reduces the Green Compression Strength.
[2.7.3.3] Method of Preparing Sand Mold
⮚ Degree of Ramming Increases the Bulk Density or Mold Hardness
of the Sand and is Related to the Other Properties.
⮚ Increased Ramming Increases the Strength.
⮚ Permeability of Green Sand Decreases with Degree of Ramming.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.7.4] Molding Sand Testing
⮚ Grain Size is Determined by Shaking a Known Amount of Clean,
Dry Sand Downward Through a Set of 11 Standard Sieves of
Decreasing Mesh Size. After Shaking For I5 Minutes, the Amount
Remaining on Each Sieve is Weighed, and the Weights are Converted
into an AFS (American Foundrymen's Society) Grain Fineness Number
(GFN).
⮚ Moisture Content is Usually Determined by a Special Device that
Measures the Electrical Conductivity of a Small Sample of Sand
that is Compressed Between Two Prongs.
Another Method is to Measure the Weight Lost From a 50 g Sample
after it has been Subjected to a Temperature of About 110°C for
Sufficient Time to Drive off all the Water.

⮚ Clay Content can be Determined by Washing the Clay from a 50 g

Sample of Molding Sand in Water that Contains Sufficient Sodium
Hydroxide to Make it Alkaline. Several Cycles of Agitation and
Washing may be Required to Fully Remove the Clay. The Remaining
Sand is then Dried and Weighed to Determine the Amount of Clay in
the Original Sample.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ Permeability and Strength Tests are Conducted on a Standard
Rammed Specimen. A Sufficient Amount of Sand is Placed into a 2-
inch Diameter Steel Tube so that after a 14-lb Weight is Dropped
Three Times from a Height of 2 inch, Final Height of the Specimen
is Within 1/32 inch of 2 inch.
⮚ Permeability is a Measure of How Easily
Gases Can Pass Through the Narrow Voids
Between the Sand Grains.
❖ Air in the Mold Before Pouring (Plus
the Steam that is Produced When the
Hot Metal Contacts the Moisture in
the Sand) must be Allowed to Escape,
Rather than be Trapped in the Casting
as Porosity or Blow Holes.
❖ During the Permeability Test, the Schematic of Permeability
Sample Tube Containing the Rammed Tester in Operation
Specimen is Placed on a Device (See
Figure), and Subjected to an Air
Pressure of 10 g/cm2.
❖ By Means of Either a Flow Rate
Determination or Measurement of
the Pressure Between the Orifice and
the Sand, an AFS Permeability
Number is Determined.
❖ Most Test Devices are Calibrated to
Provide a Direct Permeability Number.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.8] SAND MOLDING
⮚ Hand Ramming is the Preferred Method of Mold Making when Only a
Few Castings are to be Made from any Given Design, and Some Small
Foundries Still Make their Molds by Hand Molding.
⮚ In Most Cases Sand Molds are Made by Specially Designed
Molding Machines.
⮚ Various Molding Methods Differ in the
❖ Type of Flask Required,
❖ Method of Packing the Sand within the Flask,
❖ Whether Mechanical Assistance is Provided to Turn or Handle the
Mold
❖ Whether a Flask is Even Required.
⮚ In all Cases the Molding Machines Greatly Reduce the Labor and
Skill Required, and Give to Castings with Better Dimensional Accuracy
and Consistency
⮚ Molding Usually Begins with a Pattern and a Flask.
⮚ Sand is Generally Packed in the Flask by Following Basic
Techniques.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.8.1] JOLTING:
❖ Sand is Placed on Top of the Pattern.
❖ Pattern, Flask, and Sand are then
Lifted and Dropped Several Times.
❖ Kinetic Energy of the Sand Produces
Optimum Packing Around the Pattern.
❖ Jolting Machines can be Used on the
First Half of a Match-plate Pattern
or on both Halves of a Cope-and-
Drag Operation.
[2.8.2] SQUEEZING:
❖ Uses either an Air-operated Squeeze
Head, a Flexible Diaphragm to
Compact the Sand.
❖ Squeezing Provides Firm Packing
Near the Squeeze Head, but the
Density Diminishes Farther into the
Mold.
❖ High-pressure Machines with a Flexible
Diaphragm (Commonly Called
Taccone Machines) can Produce a
More Uniform Density Around all
Parts of an Irregular pattern.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.8.3] Combination of Jolting and Squeezing: is Often Used to
Produce a More Uniform Density Throughout the Mold.
❖ A Match-plate Pattern is Positioned Between the Cope and
Drag Sections of a Flask, and the Assembly is Placed Upside
Down on the Molding Machine.
❖ A Parting Compound is Sprinkled on the Pattern, and the Top
Section of the Flask is Filled with Sand.
❖ Entire Assembly is then Jolted a Specified Number of
Times to Pack the Sand Around the Pattern.
❖ A Squeeze Head is then Swung into Place, and Pressure is
Applied to Complete the Upper Portion of the Mold.
❖ Flask can be Inverted and Operations Repeated on the Cope
Half, or the Cope and Drag Can be Made on Separate Machines
Using Cope-and-drag Patterns.
❖ Except for Small Molds, Molding Machines Usually Provide
Mechanical Assistance for Inverting the Heavy Molds.
❖ Gating System and Runners can be Hand Cut or can be Made
Part of Pattern.
❖ After Completing the Mold, Tapered Flask may be Removed to
Prevent Possible Damage to the Flask During the Pour.
❖ A Slip Jacket, an Inexpensive Metal Band, may be Positioned
Around the Mold to Hold the Sand in Place.
❖ Heavy Metal Weights are Often Placed on Top of the Molds to
Prevent the Sections from Separating as the Hydrostatic
Pressure of the Melt Presses the Cope Upward.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.8.6] GREEN-SAND, DRY-SAND, AND SKIN-DRIED MOLDS
⮚ Problems of the Green-Sand Process can be Reduced by Heating
the Mold to a Temperature of 300°F or Higher, and Baking Until
Most if the Moisture is Driven off.
❖ This Strengthens the Mold and Reduces the Amount of Gases
Generated when the Hot Melt Enters the Cavity.
❖ These Dry-sand Molds are NOT Very Popular Because of the
Long Times Required for Drying, the Added Cost of that
Operation, and the Availability of Practical Alternatives.
⮚ An Attractive Compromise is to Produce a Skin-Dried Mold,
Drying Only the Sand that is Adjacent to the Mold Cavity.
❖ Torches are Often Used to Perform the Drying, and the Water is
Usually Removed to a Depth of about One-half Inch.
❖ Molds used for the Casting of Steel are Almost Always Skin-
Dried, because the Pouring Temperatures are Significantly higher
than those for Cast Iron.
❖ These Molds may also be Given a High-Silica Wash Prior to
Drying to Increase the Refractoriness of the Surface, or the
more Stable Zircon Sand can be Used as a Facing Sand.
❖ Additional Binders, such as Molasses, Linseed Oil, or Com
Flour, may be Added to the Facing Sand to Provide Additional
Strength to the Skin-dried Segment.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.9] CORES
⮚ Cores are the Materials Used for Making Cavities and Internal
Features which Cannot be Produced by the Pattern Alone.
⮚ Cores are Generally Made of the Sand and are Even Used in
Permanent molds.
⮚ In general, Cores are Surrounded on all Sides by the Melt and
Therefore Subjected to Much More Severe Thermal and Mechanical
Conditions 🡪 Core Sand should be of Higher Strength than the
Molding Sand.
[2.9.1] Desired Characteristics For a Core
⮚ Green strength: A Core Made of Green Sand should be Strong
Enough to Retain the Shape till it Goes for Baking.
⮚ Dry strength: Core should have Adequate Dry Strength so that
when the Core is Placed in the Mold, it is Able to Resist the Cast
Material Pressure Acting on it.
⮚ Permeability: The Gases Evolving from the Melt and from the Mold
may have to Go through the Core to Escape Out of the Mold. Hence
Cores are Required to have Adequate Permeability.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ Refractoriness: In Most of the cases, Core is Surrounded all Around
by the Melt, it is Desirable that the Core Material should have Higher
Refractoriness.
⮚ Collapsibility: As the Casting Cools, it Shrinks, and so the Core
should have Good Collapsibility (Ability to Decrease in Size). Lack of
Collapsibility may Provide Resistance against Shrinkage and can
cause the Casting Defect of Hot Tears.
⮚ Smoothness: Surface of the Core should be Smooth so as to
Provide a Good Finish to the Casting Surfaces in Contact with the
Cores.

⮚ Friability (Ability to Crumble): After the Casting is Completely

Cooled, the Core should be Removed from the Casting before it is
Processed Further. Hence the Friability is also an Important
Consideration.

⮚ Low gas emission: Because the Cores are Subjected to Very High
Temperature, the Evolution of Gases from the Inside are Very High at
that Temperature. These Gases are Otherwise Likely to Produce Gas
Inclusion Defects. So the Cores should be Made such that the
Evolution of Gases is Minimum.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.8.2] Core sands
⮚ Core Sand should Contain the Sand Grains, Binders and other
Additives to Provide Specific Properties.
⮚ Sand:
❖ Silica Sand which is Completely Devoid of Clay is Generally Used
for Making Core Sands.
❖ Coarse Silica (because of its Higher Refractoriness) is Used in
Steel Foundries
❖ Finer Sands are Used for Cast Irons and Non-Ferrous
Alloys.
⮚ Binders:
⮚ Core Sands Need to be Stronger than the Molding Sand.
⮚ Clay Used as Binder in Molding Sands is NOT Enough and so Organic
Binders are used.
⮚ Generally Used Binders are, Linseed Oil, Core Oil, Resins,
Dextrin, Molasses, etc. \
⮚ Core Oil is a Mixture of Linseed, Soya, Fish and Petroleum Oils and
Coal Tar.
⮚ These Binders are Burnt Away by the Heat of the Melt and thus
Make the Core Collapsible during the Cooling of the Casting.
⮚ Amount of Binder Required Depends to a Great Extent on the
Fineness of the Sand Grains.
⮚ Amount of Clay Left in the Sand Increases the Consumption of
the Binder.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
⮚ Organic Binders Develop Strength by Means of Polymerization and
Cross-Linking. To Effect this, the Cores after Preparation Need to be
Baked. A proper Combination of Baking Time is to be Chosen so as to
Optimize the Core Properties (as shown in Fig).
⮚ General Composition of a Core Sand Mixture could be Core Oil (1%)
and Water (2.5 to 6%).

Core Sand Properties by Composition

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.9.3] Types of Cores
[2.9.3.1] BASED ON THE TYPE OF SAND USED:
Green Sand Core: These are Obtained by the Pattern itself During
Molding.
❖ This is Used only for those Type of Cavities which Permit
the Withdrawal of the Pattern.
❖ Though this is the Most Economical way of Preparing Core, the
Green Sand being Low in Strength Cannot be Used for Fairly
Deep Holes.
❖ A Large Amount of Draft is to be Provided so that the Pattern
can be Withdrawn.
⮚ Dry Sand Cores: are those which are Made by Means of Special
Core Sands in a Separate Core Box, Baked and then Placed in the
Mold before Pouring.

Green Sand Core

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.9.3.2] TYPES of CORES ACCORDING to Their SHAPES and
POSITION in the MOLD
Cores Used in Foundries are Named According to their Shape and their
Position in the Mold.
⮚ Horizontal Core: The Most Common Type.
❖ Usually in a Cylindrical Form Laid Horizontally in the Mold.
❖ The Ends of the Core Rest in the Seats Provided by the Core
Prints on the Pattern.
❖ Horizontal Core May be Made in One Piece Using a Split
Corebox, or in Two Halves Using a Half Corebox.
⮚ Vertical Core: The Core when Required to be Placed Along a
Vertical Axis in the Mold is Referred as a Vertical Core.
❖ The Ends of the Core at Top and the Bottom Fit into the Seats
Provided in the Cope and Drag Halves of the Mold.
⮚ Both Horizontal and Vertical Cores are Used More Frequently than
Other Cores in the Foundry Work. For this Reason They are Called
Stock Cores and are Kept Ready in Various Diameters and Lengths.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ Balanced Core: Balanced Core
is Suitable when the Casting
has an Opening Only on One
Side and Only One Core Print is
Available on the Pattern.
❖ Core Print in such Cases
should be Sufficiently Large
to Support the Weight of the
Core, which Extends into the
Mold Cavity, and it should be
Able to Withstand the Force
of Buoyancy of the Melt ⮚ Cover Core: Cover Core is
Surrounding it. Used when the Entire Pattern
❖ To Support the Core in the is Rammed in the Drag and
Mold Cavity, Chaplets are the Core is Required to be
Often Inserted. Suspended from the Top of
the Mold.
❖ Unlike the Balanced Core,
which Extends Horizontally
in the Mold Cavity, the
Cover Core Stretches
Vertically Downwards.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

⮚ Hanging Core: If the Core Hangs
from the Cope and does Not have
Any Support at the Bottom in the
Drag, it is Referred to as a Hanging
Core.
❖ In this case, it may be Necessary
to Fasten the Core with a Wire
or Rod, which Extends through
the Cope to a Fastening on the
Top Side of the Cope.
⮚ Wing Core" or Stop-Off: Wing Core
may be Used when a Hole or Recess
is to be Obtained in the Casting
Either Above or Below the Parting
Line.
❖ Wing Core is Necessitated when it is
not Possible to Place the Pattern in
the Mold such that the Recess can
be Cored Directly or with the Other
Types of Cores.
❖ Since a Part of the Core Placed in
the Seat Becomes a Stop-off and
Forms a Surface of the Casting, it is
also Referred as Stop-Off Core.
❖ It is also Known as Tail Core, Chair Core, and Saddle Core
According to its Shape and Position in the Mold.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
⮚ Ram-Up Core: Sometimes, the Core is
Set with the Pattern in the Mold before
the Mold is Rammed. Such a Core is
called Ram-Up Core
❖ It is Favored when the Core Detail
is Located in an Inaccessible
Position.
❖ It may be Used for Both Interior
and Exterior Portions of a Casting.

⮚ Kiss Cores: When the Pattern is not

Provided with Core Prints and no
Seat is Available for Resting the Core,
the Core is Held in Position
Between the Cope and Drag
Simply by the Pressure of the
Cope.
❖ Kiss Cores are Useful when a
Number of Holes are Required
in the Casting
❖ Dimensional Accuracy with
Regard to the Relative Location
of the Holes is not Important.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.9.4] Core prints
⮚ Core Prints are Provided so that the Cores are Securely and
Correctly Positioned in the Mold Cavity.
⮚ Design of Core Prints Takes Care of the Weight of the Core Before
Pouring and the Upward Metallostatic Pressure of the Melt After
Pouring.
⮚ Core Prints should also Ensure that the Core is Not Shifted During
the Entry of the Melt into the Mold Cavity.
⮚ Main Force Acting on the Core When Melt is Poured into the Mold
Cavity is Due to Buoyancy which is the Difference in the Weight of
the Liquid Metal to that of the Core Material of the Same Volume as
that of the Exposed Core.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.10] SAND CASTING
Core Pattern Making
Making
(If Needed)

Sand Sand Preparation Mold

Making
Raw Solidification
Material Melting Pouring & Cooling

Removal
of Sand
Mold
Cleaning
and
Inspection
Cast
Sequence of Steps in Sand Product
Casting.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11] CASTING DEFECTS
Different Type of Casting Defects can be Categorized into Following
Types:
[2.11.1] Casting Defects Caused due to Evolution of Gases
[2.11.2] Casting Defects due to Shrinkage
[2.11.3] Defects Caused by Molding Material
[2.11.4] Casting Defects due Pouring of the Melt
[2.11.5] Metallurgical Defects

[2.11.1] CASTING DEFECTS CAUSED due to EVOLUTION of GASES

can be Classified into Blow Holes and Open Blows, Pin Hole
Porosity, and Air Inclusion.
Gas Defects are Caused to a Great Extent by the Lower Gas
Passing Tendency of the Mold which may be due to
⮚ Lower Venting,
⮚ Lower Permeability of the Mold: Caused by
❖ Finer Grain Size of the Sand,
❖ Higher Clay,
❖ Higher Moisture,
❖ Excessive Ramming of the Molds.
⮚ Improper Design of the Casting.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11.1.1] Blow Holes and Open Blows: These are the Spherical,
Flattened or Elongated Cavities Present Inside the Casting
(Blow Holes) or on the Surface of the Casting (Open Blows).
Scar: a Shallow Blow Usually Found on a Flat Casting Surface
Blister: This a Scar Covered by a Thin Layer of the Material
Causes:
⮚ Moisture Left in the Mold and the Core. Because of the Heat of the
Melt, the Moisture is Converted into Steam, Part of which when
Entrapped in the Casting, Ending up as Blow Hole (or Open Blow
when it Reaches the Surface).
⮚ Lower Venting
⮚ Lower Permeability of the Mold.

Blow Holes
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11.1.2] Pin Holes: This is Caused by Decrease in the Solubility
of the Hydrogen in the Melt. Hydrogen is being Picked Up in the
Furnace or by the Dissociation of Water Inside the Mold Cavity.
Porosity: Very Small Holes Uniformly Dispersed throughout a
Casting.
⮚ As the Melt Gets Solidified, it Loses the Temperature which
Decreases the Solubility of Gases and thereby Expelling the
Dissolved Gases.
⮚ Hydrogen while Leaving the Solidifying Material Causes very Small
Diameter and Long Pin Holes Showing the Path of Escape.
⮚ These Series of Pin Holes cause the Leakage of Fluids under High
Operating Pressures.
Causes:
⮚ High Pouring Temperature which Increases the Gas Pick-up.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.1.3] Air Inclusions: If the Atmospheric and other Gases
Absorbed by the Melt in the Furnace/Ladle and while the Flowing in
the Mold are Unable Escape then they are Trapped Inside the Casting
and Weaken it.
Causes:
⮚ Higher Pouring Temperatures which Increase the Amount of Gas
Absorbed
⮚ Poor Gating System Design such as
❖ Straight Sprues in Unpressurised Gating,
❖ Abrupt Bends and other Turbulence causing Practices in the
Gating (increasing the air aspiration)
⮚ Low Permeability of the Mold
Remedies:
⮚ Choosing the Appropriate Pouring Temperature
⮚ Improve Gating Practices by Reducing the Turbulence.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.2] CASTING DEFECTS due to SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage Cavity is a Void or Depression
in the Casting caused Mainly by
Uncontrolled and Haphazard
Solidification of the Cast Material.
Causes:
⮚ Wrong Location or Improper Sized
Gating System,
⮚ Inadequate Risers or Poor Design of
Casting Involving Abrupt Changes of
Sectional Thickness,
⮚ Too High pouring Temperature.
Remedy:
⮚ Promotion of Directional Solidification
by Judicious Use of Chills,
⮚ Padding etc.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.3] DEFECTS Due to MOLDING MATERIAL
Casting Defects caused by the Characteristics of the Molding Material
Include
⮚ Cuts and Washes
⮚ Penetration
⮚ Fusion
⮚ Run Out
⮚ Rat tails and Buckles
⮚ Swell
⮚ Drop
[2.11.3.1] Cuts and Washes: These Appear as
Rough Spots and Areas of Excess Cast Material.
Causes:
⮚ Erosion of Molding Sand by the Flowing Melt
due to Molding Sand not having Sufficient
Strength
⮚ Melt Flowing at High Velocity
Remedies:
⮚ Proper Choice of Molding Sand
⮚ Appropriate Molding Method.
⮚ Modifying Gating Design to Reduce the
Turbulence of the Melt by Increasing the Size of
Gates or by Using Multiple Ingates.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11.3.2] Penetration: It is the Penetration of
the Melt into the Gaps of the Mold Resulting
into a Rough Casting Surface.
Causes:
⮚ Too Coarse Sand Grain Size
⮚ Mold Wash has not been Applied into the
Mold Cavity
Remedies:
⮚ Choosing Appropriate Grain Size of Sand
Particles
⮚ Proper Mold Wash
[2.11.3.3] Fusion: This is caused by the
Fusion of Sand Grains with the Melt,
Giving a Brittle, Glassy Appearance on the
Casting Surface.
Causes:
⮚ Clay in the Molding Sand is of Lower
Refractoriness
⮚ Pouring Temperature is Too High
Remedies:
⮚ Choice of an Appropriate Type and Amount
of Bentonite Clay can Cure this Defect

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.3.4] Run out: A Run Out is Caused
when the Melt Leaks Out of the Mold.
Causes:
⮚ Faulty Mold Making
⮚ Faulty Molding Flask
[2.11.3.5] Rat Tails and Buckles: Rat tail is Caused by
the Compression Failure of the Skin of the Mold
Cavity because of the Excessive Heat in the Melt.
🡪 Under the Influence of the Heat, the Sand Expands,
thereby Moving the Mold Wall Backwards and in the
Process when the Wall Gives Away, the Casting
Surface may have this Marked as a Small Line.
🡪 With a Number of Such Failures, the Casting Surface
may have a Number of criss-Crossing Small Lines.
⮚ Buckles are the Severe Rat Tails
Causes:
⮚ Poor Expansion Properties and Hot Strength of the
Molding Sand
⮚ Too High Heat in the Pouring Melt
⮚ Inadequate Amount of Carbonaceous Material in the
Facing Sand
Remedies:
⮚ Proper Choice of Facing Sand Ingredients
⮚ Proper Pouring Temperature

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.3.6] Swell: Under the Influence of the
Metallostatic Forces, the Mold Wall may Move
Back causing a Swell in the Dimensions of the
Casting.
🡪 Due to Swell, the Feeding Requirements of
Castings Increase which should be Taken Care of
by the Proper Choice of Riser.
Cause:
⮚ Faulty Mold Making Procedure
Remedies:
⮚ Proper Ramming of the Mold

[2.11.3.7] Drop: Dropping of Loose Molding

Sand or Lumps Normally from the Cope
Surface into the Mold Cavity is Responsible for
this defect.
Causes:
⮚ Improper Ramming of the Cope Flask.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[2.11.4] DEFECTS due to POURING the MELT
The likely defects in this category are Misrun, Cold Shut and Slag
Inclusion.
[2.11.4.1] Misrun: Misrun is Caused
when the Molten Material is Unable to
Fill the Mold Cavity Completely and
thus Leaves Unfilled Cavities.

[2.11.4.2] Cold Shut: Cold Shut is

Caused when two Molten Material Streams
while Meeting in the Mold Cavity, do not
Fuse Together Properly, thus Causing a
Discontinuity or Weak Spot in the Casting.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

Causes of Misrun and Cold Shut:
⮚ Lower Fluidity of the Melt
⮚ Too Small Section Thickness of the Casting.
⮚ Castings with Large Surface Area To Volume Ratio
⮚ When the Heat Removal Capacity is Increased such as in Case of
Green Sand Molds
⮚ Back Pressure due to Gases in the Mold which is Not Properly Vented
Remedies:
⮚ To Increase the Fluidity of the Melt by Changing the Composition
⮚ Raising the Pouring Temperature
⮚ Improving the Mold Design
⮚ Ensuring Proper Casting Design (For Proper Casting Thickness)
[2.11.4.3] Slag or Dross Inclusion: Slag
Inclusions are Found Because of the Entry
of Slag into the Mold Cavity while Tapping
the Melt from the Ladle/Crucible.
Remedies:
⮚ At the Time of Tapping, the Slag should be
Properly Removed from the Ladle, before
the Melt is Poured into the Mold.
⮚ Pouring Basin Screens or Runner
Extensions may be Used to Prevent the
Slag from Entering the Mold Cavity.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11.5] METALLURGICAL DEFECTS
Metallurgical Defects Include Hot Tears and Hot Spots.
[2.11.5.1] Hot Tears: Hot Tears are Internal or External Ragged
Discontinuities or Cracks on the Casting Surface, caused by Hindered
Contraction Immediately after the Melt has been Poured.
Causes:
⮚ Poor Casting Design such as
❖ Abrupt Sectional Changes,
❖ No Proper Provision of Fillet and
Corner Radii
⮚ Inappropriate Placement of Chills,
⮚ Poor Collapsibility of Mold and Core,
⮚ Too Hard Ramming,
⮚ Incorrect Pouring Temperature,
⮚ Improper Placement of Gates and Risers.
Remedy:
⮚ Improving the Casting Design,
⮚ Achieving Directional Solidification and
Even Rate of Cooling all Over,
⮚ Selection of Proper Mold and Core
Materials to Suit the Cast Material and
⮚ Controlling the Mold Hardness in Relation
to other Ingredients of the Sand.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
[2.11.5.2] Hot Spots: These are Caused by the Chilling of the Casting.
For example, with Grey Cast Iron having Small Amounts of Silicon,
Very Hard White Cast Iron may Result at the Chilled Surface. This
Hot Spot will Interfere with the Subsequent Machining of this
Region.

Remedies:
⮚ Proper Metallurgical Control and Chilling Practices are Essential for
Eliminating the Hot Spots.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE