Graph Theory

Topics Covered
 Definitions
 Types
 Terminology
 Representation
 Sub-graphs
 Connectivity
 Hamilton and Euler definitions
 Shortest Path
 Planar Graphs
 Graph Coloring
Definitions - Graph

A generalization of the simple concept of a set

of dots, links, edges or arcs.
Representation: Graph G =(V, E) consists set of vertices
denoted by V, or by V(G) and set of edges E, or E(G)
Definitions – Edge Type
Directed: Ordered pair of vertices. Represented as (u, v)
directed from vertex u to v.

u v

Undirected: Unordered pair of vertices. Represented as {u, v}.

Disregards any sense of direction and treats both end vertices
interchangeably.

u v
Definitions – Edge Type
 Loop: A loop is an edge whose endpoints are equal
i.e., an edge joining a vertex to it self is called a
loop. Represented as {u, u} = {u}

 Multiple Edges: Two or more edges joining the

same pair of vertices.
Definitions – Graph Type
Simple (Undirected) Graph: consists of V, a nonempty set of
vertices, and E, a set of unordered pairs of distinct elements of
V called edges (undirected)
Representation Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {{u, v},
{v, w}, {u, w}}

u v

w
Definitions – Graph Type
Multigraph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set of
Edges E and a function f from E to {{u, v}| u, v V, u ≠ v}.
The edges e1 and e2 are called multiple or parallel edges if f
(e1) = f (e2).
Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3}

u
e1 e2
w

e3
v
Definitions – Graph Type
Pseudograph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set of Edges
E and a function F from E to {{u, v}| u, v Î V}. Loops allowed in
such a graph.
Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}

u
e1 w e4
e2

v e3
Definitions – Graph Type
Directed Graph: G(V, E), set of vertices V, and set of Edges E,
that are ordered pair of elements of V (directed edges)
Representation Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {(u, v), (v,
w), (w, u)}

u v

w
Definitions – Graph Type
Directed Multigraph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set
of Edges E and a function f from E to {{u, v}| u, v V}. The
edges e1 and e2 are multiple edges if f(e1) = f(e2)
Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}

u
w e4
e1 e2

v e3
Definitions – Graph Type

Type Edges Multiple Edges Loops Allowed ?

Allowed ?
Simple Graph undirected No No

Multigraph undirected Yes No

Pseudograph undirected Yes Yes

Directed Graph directed No Yes

Directed directed Yes Yes

Multigraph
Terminology – Undirected graphs
 u and v are adjacent if {u, v} is an edge, e is called incident with u and v. u and v are called endpoints of {u,
v}

 Degree of Vertex (deg (v)): the number of edges incident on a vertex. A loop contributes twice to the degree
(why?).

 Pendant Vertex: deg (v) =1

 Isolated Vertex: deg (k) = 0

Representation Example: For V = {u, v, w} , E = { {u, w}, {u, v} }, deg (u) = 2, deg (v) = 1, deg (w) = 1, deg
(k) = 0, w and v are pendant , k is isolated

u v
k

w
Terminology – Directed graphs
 For the edge (u, v), u is adjacent to v OR v is adjacent from u, u – Initial vertex, v – Terminal vertex

 In-degree (deg- (u)): number of edges for which u is terminal vertex

 Out-degree (deg+ (u)): number of edges for which u is initial vertex

Note: A loop contributes 1 to both in-degree and out-degree (why?)

Representation Example: For V = {u, v, w} , E = { (u, w), ( v, w), (u, v) }, deg- (u) = 0, deg+ (u) = 2, deg-
(v) = 1,
deg+ (v) = 1, and deg- (w) = 2, deg- (u) = 0

u v

w
Theorems: Undirected Graphs
Theorem 1
The Handshaking theorem:
2e   deg(v)
vV

(why?) Every edge connects 2 vertices

 Theorems: Undirected Graphs
Theorem 2:
An undirected graph has even number of vertices with odd degree

Pr oof V 1 is the set of even degree vertices and V2 refers to odd degree vertices
2e   deg(v)   deg(u)   deg(v)
vV u  V1 v  V2

 deg (v) is even for v  V1,

 The first term in the right hand side of the last inequality is even.
 The sum of the last two terms on the right hand side of
the last inequality is even since sum is 2e.
Hence second term is also even
 second term  deg(u)  even
v  V2
Theorems: directed Graphs
 Theorem 3: deg +


(u) = deg - (u) = |E|

Simple graphs – special cases
 Complete graph: Kn, is the simple graph that contains exactly
one edge between each pair of distinct vertices.

Representation Example: K1, K2, K3, K4

K1 K2 K3
K4
Simple graphs – special cases
 Cycle: Cn, n ≥ 3 consists of n vertices v1, v2, v3 … vn and edges
{v1, v2}, {v2, v3}, {v3, v4} … {vn-1, vn}, {vn, v1}
Representation Example: C3, C4

C3 C4
Simple graphs – special cases
 Wheels: Wn, obtained by adding additional vertex to Cn and
connecting all vertices to this new vertex by new edges.
Representation Example: W3, W4

W3 W4
Simple graphs – special cases
 N-cubes: Qn, vertices represented by 2n bit strings of length n.
Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings that they
represent differ by exactly one bit positions
Representation Example: Q1, Q2

10 11

0 1

00 01

Q1 Q2
Bipartite graphs
 In a simple graph G, if V can be partitioned into two disjoint sets V1 and V2
such that every edge in the graph connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex V2 (so
that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2)
Application example: Representing Relations
Representation example: V1 = {v1, v2, v3} and V2 = {v4, v5, v6},

v4
v1

v5
v2

v6
v3

V1 V2
Complete Bipartite graphs
 Km,n is the graph that has its vertex set portioned into two
subsets of m and n vertices, respectively There is an edge
between two vertices if and only if one vertex is in the first
subset and the other vertex is in the second subset.
Representation example: K2,3, K3,3

K2,3 K3,3
Subgraphs
 A subgraph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph H =(V’, E’) where V’ is a
subset of V and E’ is a subset of E
Application example: solving sub-problems within a graph
Representation example: V = {u, v, w}, E = ({u, v}, {v, w}, {w, u}},
H1 , H2

u u u

v w v w v

G H1 H2
Subgraphs
 G = G1 U G2 wherein E = E1 U E2 and V = V1 U V2, G, G1 and G2 are
simple graphs of G

Representation example: V1 = {u, w}, E1 = {{u, w}}, V2 = {w, v},

E1 = {{w, v}}, V = {u, v ,w}, E = {{{u, w}, {{w, v}}

u
u

w v
w w v

G1 G2 G
 Representation
 Incidence (Matrix): Most useful when information about
edges is more desirable than information about vertices.

 Adjacency (Matrix/List): Most useful when information

about the vertices is more desirable than information about the
edges. These two representations are also most popular since
information about the vertices is often more desirable than
edges in most applications
Representation- Incidence Matrix
 G = (V, E) be an unditected graph. Suppose that v1, v2, v3, …, vn are the vertices and e1, e2, …, em are the edges of G. Then the incidence matrix with respect to this ordering of V and E is the nx m
matrix M = [m ij], where

Can also be used to represent :

Multiple edges: by using columns with identical entries, since these edges are incident with the same pair of vertices
Loops: by using a column with exactly one entry equal to 1, corresponding to the vertex that is incident with the loop

1 when edge ej is incident with vi

m ij  
0 otherwise
Representation- Incidence Matrix
 Representation Example: G = (V, E)

e1 e2 e3
u
v 1 0 1
e1 e2
u 1 1 0

v w w 0 1 1
e3
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 There is an N x N matrix, where |V| = N , the Adjacenct Matrix
(NxN) A = [aij]

For undirected graph

1 if {vi, vj} is an edge of G
a ij  
0 otherwise

For directed graph
1 if (vi, vj) is an edge of G
a ij  
0 otherwise

 This makes it easier to find subgraphs, and to reverse graphs if needed.

Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Adjacency is chosen on the ordering of vertices. Hence, there
as are as many as n! such matrices.
 The adjacency matrix of simple graphs are symmetric (aij = aji)
(why?)
 When there are relatively few edges in the graph the adjacency
matrix is a sparse matrix
 Directed Multigraphs can be represented by using aij = number
of edges from vi to vj
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Example: Undirected Graph G (V, E)

v u w
u
v 0 1 1

u 1 0 1
v w
w 1 1 0
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
 Example: directed Graph G (V, E)

v u w
u
v 0 1 0

u 0 0 1
v w
w 1 0 0
Representation- Adjacency List
Each node (vertex) has a list of which nodes (vertex) it is adjacent

Example: undirectd graph G (V, E)

u
node Adjacency List

u v,w

v w, u
v w
w u,v
 Graph - Isomorphism
 G1 = (V1, E2) and G2 = (V2, E2) are isomorphic if:
 There is a one-to-one and onto function f from V1 to V2 with the property
that
 a and b are adjacent in G1 if and only if f (a) and f (b) are adjacent in G2, for all a and
b in V1.
 Function f is called isomorphism

Application Example:
In chemistry, to find if two compounds have the same structure
Graph - Isomorphism
Representation example: G1 = (V1, E1) , G2 = (V2, E2)
f(u1) = v1, f(u2) = v4, f(u3) = v3, f(u4) = v2,

u1 u2 v1 v2

u3 u4 v4
v3
Connectivity
 Basic Idea: In a Graph Reachability among vertices by
traversing the edges
Application Example:
- In a city to city road-network, if one city can be reached
from another city.
- Problems if determining whether a message can be sent
between two
computer using intermediate links
- Efficiently planning routes for data delivery in the Internet
Connectivity – Path
A Path is a sequence of edges that begins at a vertex
of a graph and travels along edges of the graph,
always connecting pairs of adjacent vertices.

Representation example: G = (V, E), Path P

represented, from u to v is {{u, 1}, {1, 4}, {4, 5}, {5,
v}}

2
1 v
3
u
4 5
 Connectivity – Path
Definition for Directed Graphs
A Path of length n (> 0) from u to v in G is a sequence of n
edges e1, e2 , e3, …, en of G such that f (e1) = (xo, x1), f (e2) = (x1,
x2), …, f (en) = (xn-1, xn), where x0 = u and xn = v. A path is said
to pass through x0, x1, …, xn or traverse e1, e2 , e3, …, en

For Simple Graphs, sequence is x0, x1, …, xn

In directed multigraphs when it is not necessary to distinguish

between their edges, we can use sequence of vertices to
represent the path

Circuit/Cycle: u = v, length of path > 0

Simple Path: does not contain an edge more than once

Connectivity – Connectedness
Undirected Graph
An undirected graph is connected if there exists is a
simple path between every pair of vertices

Representation Example: G (V, E) is connected since

for V = {v1, v2, v3, v4, v5}, there exists a path
between {vi, vj}, 1 ≤ i, j≤ 5
v4
v1 v3

v2 v5
Connectivity – Connectedness
Undirected Graph

 Articulation Point (Cut vertex): removal of a vertex

produces a subgraph with more connected components than in
the original graph. The removal of a cut vertex from a
connected graph produces a graph that is not connected
 Cut Edge: An edge whose removal produces a subgraph with
more connected components than in the original graph.
Representation example: G (V, E), v3 is the articulation point or
edge {v2, v3}, the number of connected components is 2 (> 1)

v3
v5
v1

v2
v4
Connectivity – Connectedness
Directed Graph
 A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from
a to b and from b to a whenever a and b are vertices in the
graph
 A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a
(undirected) path between every two vertices in the underlying
undirected path

A strongly connected Graph can be weakly connected but the

vice-versa is not true (why?)
Connectivity – Connectedness
Directed Graph
Representation example: G1 (Strong component), G2 (Weak
Component), G3 is undirected graph representation of G2 or G1

G1 G2 G3
Connectivity – Connectedness
 Directed Graph
Strongly connected Components: subgraphs of a
Graph G that are strongly connected
Representation example: G1 is the strongly
connected component in G

G G1
Isomorphism - revisited
A isomorphic invariant for simple graphs is the
existence of a simple circuit of length k , k is an
integer > 2 (why ?)
Representation example: G1 and G2 are isomorphic since we
have the invariants, similarity in degree of nodes, number of
edges, length of circuits

G1 G2
Euler - definitions
 An Eulerian path (Eulerian trail, Euler walk) in a graph is a path that
uses each edge precisely once. If such a path exists, the graph is called
traversable.

 An Eulerian cycle (Eulerian circuit, Euler tour) in a graph is a cycle that

uses each edge precisely once. If such a cycle exists, the graph is called
Eulerian (also unicursal).

 Representation example: G1 has Euler path a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b

a b

c d e
 The problem in our language:

Show that is not Eulerian.

In fact, it contains no Euler trail.

Euler - theorems
1. A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected
and has no vertices of odd degree

2. A connected graph G is has an Euler trail from node a to

some other node b if and only if G is connected and a  b are
the only two nodes of odd degree
Euler – theorems (=>)
Assume G has an Euler trail T from node a to node b (a and b
not necessarily distinct).

For every node besides a and b, T uses an edge to exit for each
edge it uses to enter. Thus, the degree of the node is even.

1. If a = b, then a also has even degree.  Euler circuit

2. If a  b, then a and b both have odd degree.  Euler path

Euler - theorems
1. A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected
and has no vertices of odd degree

a b

f c d

Building a simple path:

e {a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}

Euler circuit constructed if all edges

are used. True here?
Euler - theorems
1. A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected
and has no vertices of odd degree

c d

e
Delete the simple path:
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}

C is the common vertex for this

sub-graph with its “parent”.
Euler - theorems
1. A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected
and has no vertices of odd degree

c d

Constructed subgraph may not be connected.

e C is the common vertex for this sub-graph

with its “parent”.

C has even degree.

Start at c and take a walk:

{c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}
Euler - theorems
1. A connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if G is connected
and has no vertices of odd degree

a b

f c d
“Splice” the circuits in the 2 graphs:
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,f}, {f,a}
“+”
e {c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}
“=“
{a,b}, {b,c}, {c,d}, {d,e}, {e,c}, {c,f}
{f,a}
Euler Circuit
1. Circuit C := a circuit in G beginning at an arbitrary vertex v.
1. Add edges successively to form a path that returns to this vertex.
2. H := G – above circuit C
3. While H has edges
1. Sub-circuit sc := a circuit that begins at a vertex in H that is also in C (e.g., vertex “c”)
2. H := H – sc (- all isolated vertices)
3. Circuit := circuit C “spliced” with sub-circuit sc
4. Circuit C has the Euler circuit.
 Representation- Incidence Matrix

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7
e1

a b a 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

e2 b 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
e7
e3 c 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
f c d
d 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
e6
e5 e 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
e e4
f 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
 Hamiltonian Graph
 Hamiltonian path (also called traceable path) is a path that visits
each vertex exactly once.

 A Hamiltonian cycle (also called Hamiltonian circuit, vertex tour or

graph cycle) is a cycle that visits each vertex exactly once (except for
the starting vertex, which is visited once at the start and once again at
the end).

 A graph that contains a Hamiltonian path is called a traceable graph.

A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian
graph. Any Hamiltonian cycle can be converted to a Hamiltonian path
by removing one of its edges, but a Hamiltonian path can be extended
to Hamiltonian cycle only if its endpoints are adjacent.
A graph of the vertices of a dodecahedron.

Is it Hamiltonian?

Yes
.
 Hamiltonian Graph

This one has a Hamiltonian path, but not a

Hamiltonian tour.
Hamiltonian Graph

This one has an Euler tour, but no Hamiltonian path.

 Hamiltonian Graph
 Similar notions may be defined for directed graphs, where edges (arcs)
of a path or a cycle are required to point in the same direction, i.e.,
connected tail-to-head.

 The Hamiltonian cycle problem or Hamiltonian circuit problem in graph

theory is to find a Hamiltonian cycle in a given graph. The Hamiltonian
path problem is to find a Hamiltonian path in a given graph.

 There is a simple relation between the two problems. The Hamiltonian

path problem for graph G is equivalent to the Hamiltonian cycle
problem in a graph H obtained from G by adding a new vertex and
connecting it to all vertices of G.

 Both problems are NP-complete. However, certain classes of graphs

always contain Hamiltonian paths. For example, it is known that every
tournament has an odd number of Hamiltonian paths.
Hamiltonian Graph
 DIRAC’S Theorem: if G is a simple graph with n
vertices with n ≥ 3 such that the degree of every
vertex in G is at least n/2 then G has a Hamilton
circuit.

 ORE’S Theorem: if G is a simple graph with n

vertices with n ≥ 3 such that deg (u) + deg (v) ≥ n
for every pair of nonadjacent vertices u and v in G,
then G has a Hamilton circuit.
Planar Graphs
 A graph (or multigraph) G is called planar if G can be drawn in the plane with
its edges intersecting only at vertices of G, such a drawing of G is called an
embedding of G in the plane.

Application Example: VLSI design (overlapping edges requires extra layers),

Circuit design (cannot overlap wires on board)

Representation examples: K1,K2,K3,K4 are planar, Kn for n>4 are non-planar

K4
Planar Graphs
 Representation examples: Q3
 Planar Graphs
 Representation examples: K3,3 is Nonplanar

v1 v2 v3 v1 v5 v1 v5

R21
R2 R1 R1
R22
v3

v4 v5 v6 v4 v2 v4 v2
Planar Graphs
Theorem : Euler's planar graph theorem
For a connected planar graph or multigraph:
v–e+r=2

number number
number of regions
of vertices of edges
Planar Graphs
Example of Euler’s theorem

A planar graph divides the plane

R1 into several regions (faces), one
K4 R2 R4
of them is the infinite region.

R3 v=4,e=6,r=4, v-e+r=2
Planar Graphs
 Proof of Euler’s formula: By Induction
Base Case: for G1 , e1 = 1, v1 = 2 and r1= 1

v
u
R1

n+1 Case: Assume, rn = en – vn + 2 is true. Let {an+1, bn+1} be the

edge that is added to Gn to obtain Gn+1 and we prove that r n = en – vn
+ 2 is true. Can be proved using two cases.
 Planar Graphs
 Case 1:

rn+1 = rn + 1, en+1 = en + 1, vn+1 = vn => rn+1 = en+1 – vn+1 + 2

an+1

bn+1
 Planar Graphs
 Case 2:

rn+1 = rn, en+1 = en + 1, vn+1 = vn + 1 => rn+1 = en+1 – vn+1 + 2

an+1

R
bn+1
Planar Graphs
Corollary 1: Let G = (V, E) be a connected simple planar graph with
|V| = v, |E| = e > 2, and r regions. Then 3r ≤ 2e and e ≤ 3v – 6
Proof: Since G is loop-free and is not a multigraph, the boundary of
each region (including the infinite region) contains at least three
edges. Hence, each region has degree ≥ 3.
Degree of region: No. of edges on its boundary; 1 edge may occur
twice on boundary -> contributes 2 to the region degree.
Each edge occurs exactly twice: either in the same region or in 2
different regions
an+1

R
bn+1
Region Degree

R Degree of R = 3

Degree of R = ?

R
Planar Graphs
Each edge occurs exactly twice: either in the same region or in 2
different regions
2e = sum of degree of r regions determined by 2e
2e ≥ 3r. (since each region has a degree of at least 3)
r ≤ (2/3) e
From Euler’s theorem, 2 = v – e + r
2 ≤ v – e + 2e/3
2 ≤ v – e/3
So 6 ≤ 3v – e
or e ≤ 3v – 6
 Planar Graphs
Corollary 2: Let G = (V, E) be a connected simple planar graph then
G has a vertex degree that does not exceed 5
Proof: If G has one or two vertices the result is true
If G has 3 or more vertices then by Corollary 1, e ≤ 3v – 6
2e ≤ 6v – 12
If the degree of every vertex were at least 6:
by Handshaking theorem: 2e = Sum (deg(v))
 2e ≥ 6v. But this contradicts the inequality 2e ≤ 6v – 12
There must be at least one vertex with degree no greater than 5
Planar Graphs
Corollary 3: Let G = (V, E) be a connected simple planar graph with
v vertices ( v ≥ 3) , e edges, and no circuits of length 3 then e ≤ 2v
-4
Proof: Similar to Corollary 1 except the fact that no circuits of length
3 imply that degree of region must be at least 4.
Planar Graphs
 Elementary sub-division: Operation in which a graph are
obtained by removing an edge {u, v} and adding the vertex w
and edges {u, w}, {w, v}

u v u w v

 Homeomorphic Graphs: Graphs G1 and G2 are termed as

homeomorphic if they are obtained by sequence of elementary
sub-divisions.
 Planar Graphs
 Kuwratoski’s Theorem: A graph is non-planar if and only if it
contains a subgraph homeomorephic to K3,3 or K5
Representation Example: G is Nonplanar
a
b a b b
a
c
j

c d
c
h e
i
k e
d
g f d

e
H K5
g
f
G