Introduction to

Control Systems
 The Control Problem
Fundamental Control
Maintain a variable of process at a desired
Concepts
value while rejecting the effects of outside
disturbances by manipulating another
system variable.

Examples:
Heating and Cooling homes and offices
Automobile cruise control
Hold the position of a mechanical linkage
Maintain level in a tank

h Qout depends on h
If Qout = Qin, h constant
Qout > Qin, tank empties
Qout < Qin, tank overflows
Basic Subsystems of Control
Feedback Control Subsystems
Measurement
Control decision
System modification

Measurement-
sight glass

Control Decision
Human adjusts Qout to
maintain h =H

Reference
(set point)
h = control Process-
Final Control
variable Maintain tank
Element
level
Valve
 Automatic Control
Systems
Use sensors and analog or digital electronics to monitor and adjust the
system
Level
Measurement Elements of Automatic Control
Sensor Process – single or multiple
variables
Measurement – sensors
Controller
Error Detection – compare H to
h
Final control Controller – generate corrections
element Final Control Element – modify
process

Valve
Maintain Position
level
 Block Diagrams
Automatic control systems use mathematical descriptions of
subsystems to reduce complex components to inputs and outputs

Input signal Control System Output signal

Component

Energy
Source
(Optional)
Signals flow between components in system based on arrow direction
 Typical Component Block Diagrams

T (°C) Vin (V)

Temperature
Amplifier
Sensor
Vout (mV) Vout (V)

Valve Position
(% Open)
Control
Dc Motor
Valve
Armature V n (rpm) Liquid Flow
Va (V) (m3/s)

Error
L (ft) Level E (V)
Controller
Transmitter
Current Correction
(mA) V (V)
 Transfer Functions
Transfer function - ratio of the output to the input of a control
system component. Generally a function of frequency and time.

A∙sin(wt+a) B∙sin(wt+b)
G
Block
Gain

Convert to phasors
and divide

Phase shift related to time

delay
 Transfer Functions
Examples
Example 1-1: Find transfer function of temperature sensor in block diagram

T (°C)
Temperature
Sensor
Vout (mV)

Example 1-2: a current-to-voltage converter takes an input of 17.530°

mA and produces
an output of 8.3537° V Determine the transfer function gain and sketch
the block diagram.
Iin (mA) I-to-V
Converter
G Vout (V)
Open-Loop Control
Open loop control modifies output based on predetermined
control values. There is no actual measurement of
controlled quantity.

Tank level may

Controller
vary with outside
disturbances and
Final control system changes
element

Valve Output Tank

setting flow Level
Control
Controller Tank
Valve

Disturbances
 Closed Loop Control
Closed loop control modifies output based on measured values
of the control variable. Measured value compared to desired
value and used to maintain desired value when disturbances
occur. Closed loop control uses feedback of output to input.
Desired Valve Output
Value setting flow Tank
Level
Control
Controller Tank
+ Valve
-

Level
Measuremen
t

Measured
level
 Closed Loop Control
Example: Auto Cruise Control Disturbances
Mechanica
Fuel
l
flow
Power Actual
Set Speed Speed
Controlle Fuel
Engine Auto
+ r Injectors
-

Error
Speed
Sensor

Disturbances: Up hill/ down hill

Head wind/ tail wind
 Generalized Closed Loop Control

Block Diagram of Servo Control-Example Positioning Systems

R E=R-Cm Controller C
+ G=C/E
-

Cm Measurement
H=Cm/C

Reference = R Measured Variable = Cm

Error = E
Controlled Variable = C
 Generalized Closed Loop Control
Find the overall transfer function using signal flow algebra

(Input)(Gain)=(Output)

For servo control

3
1

2
1 3 E
Overall Transfer Function-Servo Control

1 2 3
Multiply through by G

Add CHG to both sides

Factor C out of right hand side

Divide both sides by (1+GH)

Divide both sides by R

 Generalized Closed Loop Control
Block Diagram of Process Control-Example Chemical Reactors
E=R-
SP Cm Control V Manipulate M Process
C
Modes d Variable
+ Gp=C/M
- Gc=V/E Gm=M/V

Cm Measurement D=Disturbances
H=Cm/C

Setpoint = SP Measured Variable = Cm

Error = E
Manipulated Variable = M
Controlled Variable = C
Controller Output = V
Overall Transfer Function-
Process Control
Find overall transfer
flow algebra
function of process control using signal

Series blocks multiple

Find overall transfer function Cm/SP C not directly

measurable in process control
Overall Transfer Function-
Process Control
As before

Substitute in for E

Substitute in for C eliminate it

Multiple both sides by H

Multiple L.H. side by GH

Add GHCm to both sides
Factor Cm from right side
Divide both sides by (1+GH)

Divide both sides by SP

Linear and Non-linear Response

Linear transfer functions give proportional

outputs. In this case the factor is 2
 Non-linear Response

Saturation non-linearity typical of practical

systems
that have physical limits. Amplifiers,
control valves
 Other Non-Linearities

Typical in magnetic circuit and in Non-linearities cause distortion in sine

instrumentation transducers waves
The response that is not proportional to the
inputs value
for all signal values.
Servo Motor – Types and Working
Principle

 A servo motor is one of the widely used variable speed drives in industrial
production, process automation, and building technology worldwide.
 Although servo motors are not a specific class of motor, they are intended
and designed for motion control applications requiring high-accuracy
positioning, quick reversing, and exceptional performance.
 These are widely used in robotics, radar systems, automated manufacturing
systems, machine tools, computers, CNC machines, tracking systems, etc.
Servo Motor Detail

Actuator

Reduction gear

Position feedback
Potentiometer
+ 5V (closed loop system)

Small electric DC motor

What are Servo Motors?
A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast
precision position control for closed-loop position control
applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo motor is not
used for continuous energy conversion.
Servo motors have a high speed response due to low inertia and
are designed with small diameter and long rotor length. Then
how do servo motors work?
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position
feedback to control the speed and final position of the motor.
Internally, a servo motor combines a motor, feedback circuit,
controller and other electronic circuit.
It uses an encoder or speed sensor to provide speed feedback
and position. This feedback signal is compared with the input
command position (desired position of the motor
corresponding to a load), and produces the error signal (if there
exists a difference between them).
The error signal available at the output of the error detector is
not enough to drive the motor. So the error detector followed
by a servo amplifier raises the voltage and power level of the
error signal and then turns the shaft of the motor to the desired
position.
Types of servomotor:
 DC Servo Motors
A DC servo motor consists of a small
DC motor, feedback potentiometer,
gearbox, motor drive electronic circuit
and electronic feedback control loop.
 It is more or less similar to the
normal DC motor. The stator of the
motor consists of a cylindrical frame
and the magnet is attached to the
inside of the frame.
The rotor consists of brush and shaft.
A commutator and a rotor metal
supporting frame are attached to the
outside of the shaft and the armature
winding is coiled in the rotor metal
supporting frame
DC Servo Motors
A brush is built with an armature coil that supplies the
current to the commutator. At the back of the shaft, a
detector is built into the rotor in order to detect the rotation
speed.
With this construction, it is simple to design a controller
using simple circuitry because the torque is proportional to
the amount of current flow through the armature.
And also the instantaneous polarity of the control voltage
decides the direction of torque developed by the motor.
Types of DC servo motors include series motors, shunt
control motor, split series motor, and permanent magnet
shunt motor.
Working Principle of DC Servo
Motor
DC servo motors consist of a DC motor, position sensor device,
gear assembly, and control circuit. The parts of RC servo motors,
which use tiny DC motors to drive loads precisely, are shown below.
A desired output DC reference voltage is specified. Depending on
the control circuitry, another potentiometer, control pulse width to
voltage converter, or timers apply this voltage.
Error amplifier inputs receive voltage from potentiometer dials.
In certain circuits, a control pulse is applied to a pulse width to a
voltage converter to provide DC reference voltage for motor
position or speed. When the pulse is high, this converter's capacitor
charges constantly. When the pulse is low, the buffer amplifier feeds
the capacitor charge to the error amplifier.
 The error amplifier voltage is determined by the pulse length
to achieve the required speed or location. In digital control,
microprocessors or microcontrollers generate PWM pulses
with duty cycles for more precise control signals.
 Position sensors provide load position feedback signals. A
potentiometer creates the voltage according to the motor
shaft’s absolute angle using a gear mechanism.
 The error amplifier input receives feedback voltage
(comparator).
The negative feedback error amplifier minimizes input
differences.
It compares the potentiometer’s voltage related to the motor’s
current position with the pulse width to the voltage converter’s
voltage related to the intended position and provides a positive
or negative voltage error.
 Motor armatures get erroneous voltage. Errors increase motor
armature output.
The amplifier powers the armature by amplifying error
voltage. The motor rotates until the error is zero.
Negative errors reverse the armature voltage, making it rotate
in the opposite direction.
High armature resistance
makes servo motor torque–
speed characteristics linear
and negative slope.
Servo drive system viscous
damping comes from
negative slopes.
The figure shows 90°
armature and field mmf. Fast
torque response.
Motor speed changes
quickly with armature
voltage changes.
AC Servo Motor
AC servo motors are basically two-
phase squirrel cage induction motors
and are used for low power
applications. Nowadays, three phase
squirrel cage induction motors have
been modified such that they can be
used in high power servo systems.
The main difference between a
standard split-phase induction motor
and AC motor is that the squirrel
cage rotor of a servo motor has
made with thinner conducting bars,
so that the motor resistance is
higher.
Working Principle of AC Servomotor

The ac servo motor's main winding receives a constant ac

voltage, and the control winding's stator terminal is connected to
the control transformer. The reference voltage determines the
synchronous generator's shaft speed and angular position.
The control transformer's shaft's angular position is compared to
the synchro generator's. The error signal is the two angular
position comparison. The error signal comes from evaluating
voltage levels for equivalent shaft positions. This error signal
connects with the control transformer voltage. Then, the servo
amplifier generates unequal control voltage using this signal.
This applied voltage again speeds up the rotor, starts revolution,
and maintains until the error signal value reaches zero, achieving
the motor's optimum position within the AC system.
Characteristics ofAC Servo Motor

AC servo motor torque speed

characteristics are provided
below.
In the following characteristics,
torque changes with speed but
not linearly since it mostly
depends on the ratio of
reactance (X) to resistance (R).
 If the motor has high resistance
and low reactance, its
characteristics are more linear
than if it has a high ratio of
reactance (X) to resistance (R).
AC Tachometer Generator
The tachometer measures the linked machine's rotating speed. The
connected device shaft and magnetic field move relative to each other.
The coil's EMF is caused by relative motion between the permanent
magnet's magnetic field. Shaft speed directly affects EMF.

The DC tachometer generator's commutator and brushes have

various drawbacks. AC tachometer generators reduce issues. The
AC tachometer's armature is stationary. Thus, AC tachometer
generators lack brushes and commutators.
The stator's stationary coil generates EMF from the revolving
magnetic field. The induced emf's amplitude and frequency match
the shaft's speed. Thus, angular velocity is measured by amplitude
or frequency.
By detecting the induced voltage amplitude, the circuit below
measures rotor speed. After rectifying, the capacitor filter
smoothes the rectified voltage waves.
The generator stator has two windings: reference and
quadrature. Windings are 90° apart.
The field structure holds the tachometer's thin aluminium cup
rotor.The low-inertia rotor is very inductive.
The reference winding receives input and outputs quadrature.
Rotor rotation between magnetic fields creates sensor winding
voltage.
Rotation speed determines induced voltage.
Synchros System Types
The synchro system is of two types. They are
Control Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchro.

Torque transmission type synchro:

As a result of their low output torque, these synchros are only

suitable for operating extremely light loads, such as a pointer.
Powering heavy loads requires a control system of the Synchro
variety.
Control Type Synchros System
The controls synchros is used for error detection in
positional control systems. Their systems consist two
units. They are
1.Synchro Transmitter
2.Synchro receiver
The synchro always works with these two parts. The detail
explanation of synchros transmitter and receiver is given
below.
Synchros Transmitter
Their construction is similar to the
three phase alternator.
The stator of the synchros is made
of steel for reducing the iron
losses.
The stator is slotted for housing
the three phase windings. The axis
of the stator winding is kept 120º
apart from each other.
The AC voltage is applied to
the rotor of the transmitter and
it is expressed as
Where Vr – r.ms.value of rotor
voltage ωc – carrier frequency
Consider the voltage is applied
to the rotor of the transmitter as
shown in the figure above.
Application of voltage to the
rotor causes a magnetizing
current and an alternating flux
along its axis. Mutual induction
between the rotor and stator
flux causes the voltage to be
induced in the stator winding.
The Cosine of the rotor-stator
angle is equal to the stator-
linked flux. The stator winding
induces the voltage.
Let Vs1, Vs2, Vs3 be the voltages generated in the stator windings S1,
S2, and S3 respectively. The figure below shows the rotor position
of the synchro transmitter. The rotor axis makes an angle
θr concerning the stator windings S2.
The variation in the stator terminal axis concerning the rotor is
shown in the figure below.

When the rotor angle becomes zero, the maximum current is produced in
the stator windings S2. The zero position of the rotor is used as a reference
for determining the rotor angular position.
The output of the transmitter is given to stator winding of the control
transformer which is shown in the above figure.
Control transformer and transmitter flux axes are aligned. The control
transformer rotor creates the cosine of the transmitter and controller rotor
angles.
The voltage is given as
Where φ – angular displacement between the rotor axes of
transmitter and controller.
Φ – 90º the axis between the rotor of transmitter and control
transformer is perpendicular to each other. The above figure
shows the zero position of the rotor of transmitter and receiver.
Consider the position of the rotor and the transmitter is
changing in the same direction. An angle θR deflects the rotor
of the transmitter and that of the control transformer is kept θC.
The total angular separation between the rotors is Φ = (90º –
θR + θC)
The rotor terminal voltage of the Synchro transformer is given
as
The small angular displacement between their rotor position is
given as
Sin (θR – θC) = (θR – θC)
On substituting the value of angular displacement in equation
(1) we get

The synchro transmitter and the control transformer together

used for detecting the error. The voltage equation shown above
is equal to the shaft position of the rotors of control transformer
and transmitter.
The error signal is applied to the differential amplifier which
gives input to the servo motor. The gear of the servo motor
rotates the rotor of the control transformer
The error signal is applied to the
differential amplifier which gives
input to the servo motor. The gear of
the servo motor rotates the rotor of
the control transformer.
The figure above shows the output
of the synchro error detector which
is a modulated signal. The
modulating wave above shown the
misalignment between the rotor
position and the carrier wave.

Where Ks is the error detector.

Stepper Motor / Electro magnet
 Stepper motor
 A stepper motor is a special electrical machine
which rotates in discrete angular steps in
response to a programmed sequence of input
electrical pulses.

 Working Principle
 A magnetic interaction takes place between the
rotor and the stator, which make rotor move.
 Construction
 The stator has windings
 The rotor is of salient structure without any
windings, and it may or may not
have permanent magnets
 Application
 Application of stepper motor in diverse areas
ranging from a small wrist watch to artificial
satellites.
 Power range 1W to 2.5KW
 Torque range 1µN to 40 Nm
 Stepper motor

(1) Variable (2) Permanent (3) Hybrid stepper (4) Other type
magnet motor (HSM)

reluctance

(1.1) Single stack VR Stepper (1.2) Multi stack VR

Motor Stepping motor
 Rotor

Stator
Outside Casing

Coils Stator

Rotor

Internal components of a Stepper Motor

 Cross Section of a Stepper Motor

Stators

Rotor
Full Step Operation

Four Steps per revolution i.e. 90 deg. steps.

Half Step Operation

Eight steps per. revolution i.e. 45 deg. steps.

Winding number 1

One
6 pole rotor step

Winding number 2
Six pole rotor, two electro magnets.

How many steps are required for one complete revolution?

 Practical Stepper motor operation

The top electromagnet (1) is turned on, The top electromagnet (1) is turned off,
attracting the nearest teeth of a gear-shaped and the right electromagnet (2) is
iron rotor. With the teeth aligned to energized, pulling the nearest teeth slightly
electromagnet 1, they will be slightly offset to the right. This results in a rotation of
from electromagnet 2 3.6° in this example.
The bottom electromagnet (3) is The left electromagnet (4) is enabled, rotating
energized; another 3.6° rotation occurs. again by 3.6°. When the top electromagnet (1) is
again enabled, the teeth in the sprocket will have
rotated by one tooth position; since there are 25
teeth, it will take 100 steps to make a full
rotation in this example.
1. Variable reluctance motor
Variable reluctance stepper motor works on the principle that a
magnetic material placed in magnetic field experience a force to
align minimum reluctance path
Variable reluctance motor

(1.1) Single stack VR (1.2) Multi stack VR

Stepper Motor reluctance Stepping
motor
 1.1 Single stack VR Stepper Motor
Construction
• Stator
1. The stator made up of silicon steel stampings.
2. It has projecting poles, usually even no of poles.
3. The pole carry concentric windings
• Rotor
1. Usually made up of silicon steel.
2. Solid silicon steel also used for core of rotor.
3. The rotor has projecting teeth on its outer periphery.

The no of rotor teeth and stator pole should not be equal. this
make
motor self starting
 Working
Rotor teeth can assume any position until
the stator winding energized. For a four
phase (eight pole) single stack VR stepper
motor the angle rotated by the rotor (Φ) is
given by

Φ=360/MxNr degree
Where
M = the number of stator phase
Nr= the number of rotor phase

In the present case M=4, Nr=6

Φ=360/4x6 degree = 15 degree
Modes of Excitation
a) 1 Phase ON or full step mode
b) 2-1-2-1-Phase ON (Half Stepping)
c) Two phase ON mode
d) Micro-stepping
1 Phase ON (Full Stepping)
Rotor position for phase excitation
2-1-2-1-Phase ON (Half Stepping)
Two phase ON mode
Advantages / Disadvantages
 Advantages:-
 Low cost for control achieved
 Ruggedness
 Simplicity of construction
 Can operate in an open loop control system
 Low maintenance
 Less likely to stall or slip
 Will work in any environment

 Disadvantages:-
 Require a dedicated control circuit
 Use more current than D.C. motors
 High torque output achieved at low speeds