ATOMIC

STRUCTURE
BY:GROUP 6
 WHAT IS ATOMIC STRUCTURE?

It refers to the structure of an

atom comprising a nucleus
(center) in which the protons
(positively charge) and neutrons
(neutral) are present. The
negatively charged particles
called electrons revolve around
the center of nucleus.
 EARLY ATOMIC THEORY
The earliest recorded discussion of the basic
structure of matter comes from ancient
Greek philosophers. In the fifth century BC,
Leucippus and Democritus argued that all
matter was composed of small, finite particles
that they called "Atomos", greek word for
“indivisible.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton's Atomic Theory
1. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms
in the early 1800s, John Joseph Dalton came up with the theory that
mark the beginning of the modern era of chemistry.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other
properties. Atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and
other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number
ratios to form chemical compounds
EARLY RESEARCH ON ATOMIC
PARTICLES

• In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev arrange the known

elements in a periodic table based on their atomic
mass.
• In 1890s, Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie
observed that radioactivity causes some atoms to
break down spontaneously.
• In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered x-rays.
• In 1897, John Joseph
Thomson discovered electrons
in 1904, John Joseph
Thompson suggested the
"Plum Pudding" model of the
atom. Negative electrons
dispersed in a positive
structure.
• In 1910-1911, Ernest
Rutherford observed that
atoms are mostly empty space.
• In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed
an atomic model that shows
electrons move in concentric
orbits around the nucleus.
• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford
discovered protons.
• In 1932, James Chadwick
discovered neutrons.
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS

• The atomic number serves as the identity of an atom. The atomic number refers
to the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element.
• In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons in a neutral
atom.
• The Atomic mass is the total number of Neutrons and Protons present in the
nucleus of an atom of an element.
• All atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons and exception to this is
hydrogen which has 1 proton but no neutrons.
•Atoms with the same
number of protons but
different numbers of
neutrons are called
Isotopes. Meaning
same atomic number
but different atomic
masses.
 AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS
• The average Atomic Mass of an element is the sum of the
masses of its isotopes, each multiplied by its natural
abundance or the decimal associated with percent of atoms
of that element that are of a given isotope.
• Avg. = m1p1+m2p2+m3p3...
• m - atomic mass
• p - percentage of abundance
 RUTHERFORD-BOHR
ATOM

• The Rutherford-Bohr Model has an atom

consisting of a small, positively charged
nucleus orbited by negatively charged
electrons.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that
have a set size and energy.
• The energy of the orbit is related to its size.
The lowest energy is found in the smallest
orbit.
• Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an
electron moves from one orbit.
 UNDERSTANDING ATOMIC
SPPECTRA

• A rainbow is an example of a
continuous spectrum. Here, the
colors displayed are within
between 380-760 nm. Light in
this wavelength range is visible
to the naked eye. Unlike the
visible spectrum, light that is of
different wavelengths is not
visible.
 ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA
• The Ground State of an atom is the
lowest energy state of the atom.
When those atoms are given energy,
the electrons absorb the energy and
move to a higher energy level.
• An excited state of an atom is a state
where its potential energy is higher
than the ground state. An atom in the
excited state is not stable. When it
returns back to the ground state it
releases the energy that it had
previously gained often in the form of
electromagnetic radiation and heat.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
• According to Planck’s quantum theory
1. Different atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy
in discrete quantities only. The smallest amount of energy
that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of
electromagnetic radiation is known as quantum.
• 2. The energy of the radiation absorbed or emitted is
directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
 HYDROGEN ATOM

The hydrogen atom is the simplest atom in nature and,

therefore, a good starting point to study atoms and atomic
structure. In Bohr’s model, the electron is pulled around
the proton in a perfectly circular orbit by an attractive
Coulomb force.
• The proton is approximately 1800 times more massive
than the electron, so the proton moves very little in
response to the force on the proton by the electron. (It is
like the sun and earth.
 PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that

occurs when light shone onto a metal surface
causes the ejection of electrons from that
metal. If the frequency of the incident light
was too low, red light for example, then no
electrons were ejected. If the frequency of the
light was higher, green light for example, then
electrons were able to be ejected from the
metal surface. This minimum frequency
needed to cause electron ejection is referred
to as the threshold frequency.
•Ernest Rutherford was born
on August 30, 1871, in Nelson,
New Zealand. Ernest
Rutherford postulated the
nuclear structure of the atom,
discovered alpha and beta
rays, and proposed the laws of
radioactive decay. He received
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
in 1908.
ELECTRONS CLOUDS
AND
PROBABILITY
 DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed the
hypothesis that electrons and other
particles of matter can behave like
waves. The energy of the electron is
deposited at a point, just as if it was a
particle. So while the electron
propagates through space like a
wave, it interacts at a point like a
particle. This is known as wave-
particle duality.
Momentum is defined as the quantity
of motion of the body. It is measured
by "the product of mass and velocity”,
as momentum depends upon velocity,
and it depends on the direction of the
motion of the body as well.
 HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
Formulated by the German physicist and Nobel
Laureate Werner Heisenberg in 1927, the uncertainty
principle states that we cannot know both the
position and speed of a particle, such as a photon or
electron, with perfect accuracy; the more we nail
down the particle's position, the less we know about
its speed and vice versa .In other words, if we could
shrink a ball down to the size of an electron, we
would only be able to precisely calculate its speed
or its location, not both at the same time.
 Schrödinger's Work
In Schrödinger's original work, a
hypothetical cat, a flask of poison, and
a radioactive source are placed in a
sealed box. If an internal monitor a
Geiger counter detects radioactivity or
a single atom decaying, the flask is
shattered, releasing the poison, which
kills the cat. A view implies that, after a
while, the cat is simultaneously alive
and dead. Yet, when one looks in the
box, one sees the cat either alive or
dead, not both alive and dead. This
poses the question of when exactly
quantum superposition ends and reality
resolves into one possibility or the
other.
 Wave-Mechanical view of the Hydrogen Atom
The wave-mechanical theory proposes that each
electron circling an atom's nucleus occupies a
specific orbital and spins a certain direction, but
the orbital is like a cloud or wave of energy, not the
ring you might imagine thinking about the earth's
orbit around the sun
 Quantum Numbers
The location and energy of an atom is
determined by the set of four quantum numbers
that describe atomic orbitals. Orbitals An orbit is
a region of probability where electron can be
found. There are s, d, p, and f orbitals with
different shapes. These are not electrons but
regions in space where electron can be found.
Each can hold up to two electrons.
 4 QUANTUM
NUMBERS

1. Principal Quantum
Number -It represents
the energy level of the
electron. Each orbital has
a value. The larger the
value the farther it is on
the nucleus.
2. Angular Momentum Quantum
Number
- It describes the shape of the
orbital.
 4. Spin Quantum Number
• 3. Magnetic Quantum Number - -determines the spin value of an electron in an orbital
determines how many orbitals there are of a
type per energy level Every electron in an atom as a unique set of quantum
numbers. There is no two electrons that have the exact
same set of quantum numbers.
 Electron
The diagonal rule states that electrons fill
configuration
orbitals in order of increasing "quantum
The electron configuration of an number sum" (n + ℓ)
element describes how
electrons are distributed in its
atomic orbitals.
The Aufbau Principle
tells us the order in
which an atom will fill
up its orbitals.
 Electron Dot Diagram
• Valence electrons of an atom are the
electrons located in the highest occupied
principal energy level. Valence electrons
are primarily responsible for the chemical
properties of elements. The number of
valence electrons can be easily determined
from the electron configuration.
• Electron dot diagrams are diagrams in
which the valence electrons of an atom are
shown as dots distributed around the
element's symbol
Wolfgang Ernst Pauli was an
Austrian theoretical physicist and
one of the pioneers of quantum
physics. In 1945, after have been
nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli
received the Nobel Prize in Physics
for his "decisive contribution
through his discovery of a new law
of Nature, the exclusion principle
or Pauli principle". The discovery
involved spin theory, which is the
basis of a theory of the structure of
matter.
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF
ELEMENTS
Early Attempts of Classification

When elements were discovered, a proper

classification was required for the easier and
better understanding. Many scientists adopted
different ways to classify them. They tried to
find out some pattern or regularity in the
properties of elements.
 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner

In 1829,He discovered the

existence of families of elements
with similar chemical properties.
Because there always seemed to
be three elements in these
families, he called them triads.
Dobereiner proposed the
Law of Triads

“The middle element in

the triad had atomic
weight that was the
average of the other two
members.”
 Drawbacks of Dobereiner 's triads
• 1. Many elements could not be grouped into triads.
Example, Iron, Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Zinc and
Copper are similar elements but cannot be placed in
the triads.

• 2. It was also observed that dissimilar elements were

being grouped into triads. "The average of the first
and the third element will be equal or approximate to
the middle element." This triad rule was applicable
only to lower elements till Calcium. Rule was not
applicable to higher elements.

• 3. There are only 53 elements, and no more elements

could be found. And hence he did not leave space for
the Noble/Inert gases and other elements.

• 4. It was possible that quite dissimilar elements

could be grouped into triads. 5. Dobereiner could
only classify 3 triads successfully.

• 6. Since he failed to arrange the then known

elements in the form of triads his attempt at
classification was not very successful.
John Alexander Reina Newlands

• British chemist John Newlands was the

first to arrange the elements into a
periodic table with increasing order of
atomic masses. He found that every
eight elements had similar properties
and called this the law of octaves. He
arranged the elements in eight groups
but left no gaps for undiscovered
elements. At the time there where 56
elements discovered.
 Newlands Law of Octaves

• 1. Newlands Octaves arranged the

known elements into roughly 8 groups
of 8 each.
• 2. The elements were in increasing
order of atomic weight.
• 3. Every element shared properties with
the 8th element after it.
• 4. Sometimes two elements were made
to occupy one place, to reflect their
properties.
 The limitations of Newlands Law of Octaves

1. It left no space for new

elements to be discovered.
2. It grouped some dissimilar
elements together, e.g., halogens
with metals.
3. It worked well only up to
Calcium.
4. Sometimes two elements had to
take up one place, with no
explanation.
Dmitri Mendeleev (Dmitry Ivanovich
Mendeleyev)
• Russian chemist who developed the
periodic classification of the elements.
Mendeleev found that, when all the
known chemical elements were arranged
in order of increasing atomic weight, the
resulting table displayed a recurring
pattern, or periodicity, of properties
within groups of elements. In his version
of the periodic table of 1871, he left gaps
in places where he believed unknown
elements would find their place. He even
predicted the likely properties of three of
the potential elements.
Atomic mass increases
from top to bottom of
vertical columns, with
successive columns going
left to right. As a result,
elements that are in the
same horizontal row are
groups of elements that
were known to exhibit
similar chemical properties.
• One of Mendeleev's insights is that
tellurium is listed before iodine
even though its atomic mass is
higher. Mendeleev reversed the
order because he knew that the
properties of iodine were much
more like those of fluorine(F),
chlorine(Cl), and bromine(Br) than
they were to oxygen(O), sulfur(S),
and selenium(Se). He simply
assumed that there was an error in
the determination of one or both
atomic masses. This turned out not
to be the case, but Mendeleev was
indeed correct to group these two
elements as he did.
There are several places in the
table that have no chemical
symbol but are instead labeled
with a question mark. Between
zinc(Zn) and arsenic(As) are two
such missing elements.
Mendeleev believed that
elements with atomic masses of
68 and 70 would eventually be
discovered and that they would
fit chemically into each of those
spaces.
Other properties that Mendeleev predicted for the first of these two missing elements,
which he called "eka-aluminum". "eka-aluminum" was not discovered yet but based on
the properties of elements around it in his periodic table of elements he predicted that:
1. It will have and atomic weight of 68
2. It is solid at room temperature, but its melting point will be low.
3. 1 cm³of it would weight approx. 6g
4. It is shiny, malleable, and conducts heat very well

In 1875, The element gallium was discovered few years after the publication of
Mendeleev's table in 1869, and its properties matched up remarkably well with eka-
aluminum, fitting into the table exactly where he had predicted. This was also the case
with the element that followed gallium(Ga), which was eventually named
germanium(Ge).
 The Periodic Law
When Mendeleev put his periodic table
together, nobody knew about the
existence of the nucleus. It was not until
1911 that Rutherford discovered the
presence of the nucleus in the atom. And
later in 1913, English physicist Henry
Moseley led to the definition of atomic
number as the number of protons
contained in the nucleus of each atom. He
then realized that the elements of the
periodic table should be arranged in order
of increasing atomic number, rather than
increasing atomic mass.