LECTURE 7

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Engineering Economy

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[2-3]
Time Value of Money
Arithmetic Gradient Series

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Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
• An arithmetic gradient is a cash flow series that either increases or
decreases by a constant amount

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• The cash flow, whether income or disbursement, changes by the
same arithmetic amount each period

• The amount of the increase or decrease is the gradient (G)

• For example, if an engineer predicts that the cost of maintaining a

machine will increase by $500 per year until the machine is retired,
a gradient series is involved and the amount of the gradient is $500
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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series

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• The diagram is of an arithmetic gradient series with a base
amount of $1,500 and a gradient of $50

• The origin of the series is at the end of the first period

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• G is the constant arithmetic change in the magnitude of receipts
or disbursements from one time period to the next
 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Example
• A company expects a revenue of $80,000 in fees next year. Fees are
expected to increase uniformly to a level of $200,000 in nine years

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• Determine the arithmetic gradient and construct the cash flow
diagram

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Example

• The cash flow in year n (CFn) may be calculated as:

CFn = base amount + (n-1)G
• The base amount (generally A1) is $80,000 and the total

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revenue increase in 9 years = 200,000 – 80,000 = 120,000

• G = increase/(n-1) = 120,000/(9-1) = $15,000

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 Strict Linear Gradient Series
• The strict linear gradient series has the origin at the end of the first
period with a zero value

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• The gradient G can be either positive or negative. If G > 0, the series
is referred to as an increasing gradient series. If G < 0, it is a
decreasing gradient series

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Analysis
Three factors will be considered for arithmetic gradient strict series:
• P/G factor for present worth: G(P/G,i,n)
Convert an arithmetic gradient G (without the base amount) for n years into a
present worth at year 0

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• A/G factor for annual series: G(A/G,i,n)
Convert an arithmetic gradient G (without the base amount) for n years into an
equivalent uniform series of A value

• F/G factor for future worth: G(F/G,i,n)

Convert an arithmetic gradient G (without the base amount) for n years into an
equivalent future value at year n

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Present Worth Factor – P/G Factor
The Present worth factor (P/G) can be expressed in the following
form:
P = G(P/G,i,n) gradient series

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present-worth factor

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Present Worth Factor – Example
• A textile mill has just purchased a lift truck that has a useful life of five
years. The engineer estimates that maintenance costs for the truck
during the first year will be $1,000

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• As the truck ages, maintenance costs are expected to increase at a
rate of $250 per year over the remaining life

• Assume that the maintenance costs occur at the end of each year. The
firm wants to set up a maintenance account that earns 12% annual
interest. All future maintenance expenses will be paid out of this
account. How much does the firm have to deposit in the account now?

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Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Present Worth Factor – Example

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The idea here is to have
a strict gradient series
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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Present Worth Factor – Example
• We have: A1=$1,000; G=$250; i=12%; and n=5 years. Find P

• The cash flow can be broken into two components where the first is

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an equal uniform payment series (A1) and the second is a strict
linear gradient series (G)

• P = P1 + P2
P = A1(P/A,12%,5) + G(P/G,12%,5) =
$1,000(3.6048) + $250(6.397) = $5,204

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 Example 2

• A cash flow of $5,000 in year 1 and

amounts decreasing by $400 per year thru year

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5. Assume the interest rate is 12% per year.

• Draw a cash flow diagram of the project

• Calculate present worth of the project

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Annul Series Factor – Example
• You want to deposit $1,000 in your saving account at the end
of the first year and increase this amount by $300 for each of

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the next five years

• Then what should be the size of an annual uniform deposit

that yields an equal balance with the above by the end of six
years if the interest rate is 10%?

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Annul Series Factor – A/G Factor
The equivalent uniform annual series (A value) for an arithmetic
gradient G is found by the following formula:
A = G(A/G,i,n) 

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Arithmetic-gradient
uniform-series factor

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Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Annul Series Factor – Example

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Annul Series Factor – Example
• We have: A1=$1,000; G=$300; i=10%, and n=6. Find A

• We have to separate the constant portion of $1,000 from the series

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leaving the gradient series of 0; 0; 300; 600; ….; 1,500

• To find the equal payment series beginning at the end of year 1 and
ending at year 6 we consider:

A = $1,000 + $300(A/G,10%,6) =
$1,000 + $300(2.2236) = $1,667.08

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Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Annul Series Factor – Example
An alternative way to
solve this question is by
finding the present

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worth of all the
payments and then to
convert P to a uniform
series of A

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Future Worth Factor – Example
• Suppose that you make a series of annual deposits into a bank
account that pays 10% interest. The initial deposit at the end of the
first year is $1,200

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• The deposit amounts decline by $200 in each of the next four years

• How much would you have immediately after the fifth deposit?

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 Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Future Worth Factor – F/G Factor
The future worth factor (F/G) can be expressed in the following
form:
F = G(F/G,i,n)

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Arithmetic (Linear) Gradient Series
Future Worth Factor – Example
F = F1 – F2
F = A1(F/A,10%,5) – $200(F/G,10%,5) =

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$1,200(6.105) – $200(11.051) = $5,115

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Engineering Economy

09/13/2023
[2-4]
Time Value of Money
Geometric Gradient Series

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 Geometric Gradient Series
• In geometric gradient series, cash flow increases or decreases
from period to period by a constant percentage

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• This uniform rate of change defines a geometric gradient
series of cash flows

• We will use the term g which is the constant rate of change by

which amounts increase or decrease from one period to the
next

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Geometric Gradient Series

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 Geometric Gradient Series
• We need to find the value of the present worth at time = 0 based on
geometric gradient series cash flows starting by the end of period 1
by an amount A1 and increasing by a constant rate of g each period

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• P = A1(P/A,g,i,n)

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 Geometric Gradient Series
Example
• Engineers at a specific company need to make some modifications
to an existing machine

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• The modification costs only $8,000 and is expected to last 6 years
with a $1,300 salvage value

• The maintenance cost is expected to be high at $1,700 the first year,

increasing by 11% per year thereafter

• Determine the equivalent present worth of the modification and

maintenance cost. The interest rate is 8% per year
• Draw cash flow diagram

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Geometric Gradient Series
Example

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 Geometric Gradient Series
Example
• The present worth value is comprised of three components:
 The present modification cost = $8,000
 The present value of the future salvage value

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 The present value of all the maintenance values throughout the 6 years
and these are represented by the geometric gradient series
• PT = –8,000 + 1,300(P/F,8%,6) – Pg

• Pg = A1(P/A,g,i,n) 

• PT = – 8,000 + 819.26 – 1,700×5.9559 = $ –17,305.85

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