Azmir Latif

2
 Definition of NDT (NDE)
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e.
Inspect or measure
without doing harm.
 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
▣ Test piece too precious to be destroyed
▣ Test piece to be reuse after inspection
▣ Test piece is in service
▣ For quality control purpose
▣ Something you simply cannot do harm to, e.g.
fetus in mother’s uterus
 When are NDE Methods Used?
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a
component.
–To assist in product development
–To screen or sort incoming materials
–To monitor, improve or control
manufacturing processes
–To verify proper processing such as
heat treating
–To verify proper assembly
–To inspect for in-service damage
▣ Detection of surface flaws
 Visual
 MagneticParticle Inspection
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection

▣ Detection of internal flaws

 Radiography
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Eddy current Testing
1. Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous
or tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
 2.1 Introduction
▣ A nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. Fast and relatively
easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as for some other
NDT methods. – MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing
methods.
▣ MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to
detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability
standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will
allow the inspection to be affective.
▣ The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings,
forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle
inspection for determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of
industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel,
automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be
used to test such things as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
 2.2 Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively
simple concept. It can be considered as a combination of
two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leakage
testing and visual testing.
Consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and
around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force
exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole
and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called
a south pole.
Interaction of materials with an external
magnetic field
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the
magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be affected.
This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic
Induction.
However, materials can react quite differently to the
presence of an external magnetic field. This reaction is
dependent on a number of factors such as the atomic and
molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic
field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments
associated with atoms have three origins. These are the
electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion
caused by an external magnetic field, and the spin of the
electrons.
 Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and
Ferromagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic metals: very weak and negative susceptibility
to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly
repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not retain
the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
Paramagnetic metals: small and positive susceptibility to
magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a
magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic
properties when the external field is removed.
Ferromagnetic materials: large and positive susceptibility
to an external magnetic field. They exhibit a strong
attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their
magnetic properties after the external field has been
removed.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the
magnetic domains within the material are aligned. This can be
done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or
by passes electrical current through the material. Some or all of
the domains can become aligned. The more domains that are
aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all
of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be magnetically
saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no
additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an
increase in its internal level of magnetization.

Unmagnetized material Magnetized material

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
•Follow the path of least resistance
between opposite magnetic poles.
• Never cross one another.
• All have the same strength.
•Their density decreases (they
spread out) when they move from an
area of higher permeability to an
area of lower permeability.
•Their density decreases with
increasing distance from the
poles.
•flow from the south pole to the
north pole within the material
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two
complete bar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of
each piece will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not
broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at
each edge of the crack.
The magnetic field exits the north
pole and reenters the at the south
pole. The magnetic field spreads out
when it encounter the small air gap
created by the crack because the air
can not support as much magnetic
field per unit volume as the magnet
can. When the field spreads out, it
appears to leak out of the material
and, thus, it is called a flux leakage
field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will
be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the
magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster
of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is
the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
• The magnetic flux line close to the surface of a
ferromagnetic material tends to follow the surface
profile of the material
• Discontinuities (cracks or voids) of the material
perpendicular to the flux lines cause fringing
of the magnetic flux lines, i.e. flux leakage
• The leakage field can attract other ferromagnetic
particles
The magnetic particles form a
ridge many times wider than
the crack itself, thus making
the otherwise invisible crack
visible

Cracks just below the

surface can also be
revealed
MPI is not sensitive to shallow
and smooth surface defects

The effectiveness of MPI

depends strongly on the
orientation of the crack related
to the flux lines
▣ Cleaning
▣ Demagnetization

▣ Contrast dyes (e.g. white paint for dark

particles)
▣ Magnetizing the object

▣ Addition of magnetic particles

▣ Illumination during inspection (e.g.

U V lamp)
▣ Interpretation

▣ Demagnetization - prevent accumulation of iron

particles or influence to sensitive instruments
•Indirect magnetization: using a strong external magnetic
field to establish a magnetic field within the component

(a) permanent magnets

(b) Electromagnets

(c) coil shot

▣ British Standards
◾ BS M.35: Aerospace Series: Magnetic Particle
Flaw Detection of Materials and Components
◾ BS 4397: Methods for magnetic particle testing of
welds
▣ ASTM Standards
◾ ASTM E 709-80: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Examination
◾ ASTM E 125-63: Standard reference photographs
for magnetic particle indications on ferrous castings
▣ etc….
▣ One of the most dependable and sensitive methods
for surface defects
▣ fast, simple and inexpensive
▣ direct, visible indication on surface
▣ unaffected by possible deposits, e.g. oil, grease or
other metals chips, in the cracks
▣ can be used on painted objects
▣ surface preparation not required
▣ results readily documented with photo or tape
impression
▣ Only good for ferromagnetic materials
▣ sub-surface defects will not always be indicated
▣ relative direction between the magnetic field and
the defect line is important
▣ objects must be demagnetized before and after the
examination
▣ the current magnetization may cause burn scars on
the item examined
Examples of visible dry magnetic particle indications

Indication of a crack in a saw blade Indication of cracks in a weldment

Indication of cracks running between

Before and after inspection pictures of attachment holes in a hinge
Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic
Particle Indications
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent
indication of a cracks in a drive shaft

Magnetic particle wet

fluorescent
indication of a crack
in a bearing

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication

of a cracks at a fastener hole
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the
most widely used nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors, which are its relative ease
of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to
inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous.
Materials that are commonly inspected using
LPI include metals (aluminum, copper, steel,
titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials,
rubber, and plastics.
 3.1 Introduction
▣ Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal
surface breaking flaws by bleedout of a colored or fluorescent
dye from the flaw.
▣ The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into
a "clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
▣ After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface
penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This acts as a
"blotter." It draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its
presence.
▣ Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while
fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened conditions
with an ultraviolet "black light". Unlike MPI, this method can be
used in non-ferromagnetic materials and even non-metals
▣ Modern methods can reveal cracks 2m wide
▣ Standard: ASTM E165-80 Liquid Penetrant Inspection Method
 Why Liquid Penetrant Inspection?
• To improves the detectability of flaws
There are basically two ways that
a penetrant inspection process
makes flaws more easily seen.
(1) LPI
produces a flaw indication that
is much larger and easier for the
eye to detect than the flaw
itself.
The advantage that a liquid withproduces
(2) LPI a high level of contrast
a flaw indication
penetrant inspection (LPI) offers between the indication and
over an unaided visual inspection the background.
is that it makes defects easier to
see for the inspector.
 3.2 Basic processing steps of LPI
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant
inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil,
grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent penetrant from
entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been
performed. These and other mechanical operations can smear the surface
of the sample, thus closing the defects.

2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned

and dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or
immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time
to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a
defect. The times vary depending on the application, penetrant materials
used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and the type
of defect being inspected. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer
penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry.
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the
inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed
from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this
step may involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water,
or first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to

the sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface
where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that
may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying
(wet developers).

6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the

part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of
the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development
time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer
times may be necessary for tight cracks.
7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting
to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the
part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were found
to be acceptable.
A penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics.
A penetrant must
•spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to
provide complete and even coverage.
• be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary action.
•remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the
part.
•remain fluid so it can be drawn back to the surface of the part
through the drying and developing steps.
•be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see
indications.
• must not be harmful to the material being tested or the
inspector.
Dye penetrants Fluorescent penetrants
◾ The liquids are coloured so that ◾ Liquid contain additives to
they provide good contrast give fluorescence under U V
against the developer ◾ Object should be shielded from
◾ Usually red liquid against visible light during inspection
white ◾ Fluorescent indications are
developer easy to see in the dark
◾ Observation performed in
ordinary daylight or
good indoor illumination

Standard: Aerospace
Material Specification
 3.4 Primary
• Advantages
The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
• The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and
nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive
and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
• Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected
rapidly and at low cost.
• Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part
and constitute a visual representation of the flaw.
• Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
• Penetrant materials and associated equipment are
relatively inexpensive.
 3.5 Primary Disadvantages
• Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
• Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be
inspected.
• Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or
vapor blasting must be removed prior to LPI.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface
being inspected.
• Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection
sensitivity.
• Multiple process operations must be performed and
controlled.
• Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Radiography involves the use of penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation to examine material's and
product's defects and internal features. An X-ray
machine or radioactive isotope is used as a source High Electrical Potential
of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part
and onto film or other media. The resulting
shadowgraph shows the internal features and Electrons
soundness of the part. Material thickness and
density changes are indicated as lighter or darker + -
areas on the film. The darker areas in the
radiograph below represent internal voids in the
component.
X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 X-rays or gamma radiation is used
4.1.1 x-ray source
Properties and Generation of X-ray
• X-rays are electromagnetic
radiation with very short
wavelength ( 10-8 -10-12 m)
• The energy of the x-ray
can
be calculated with the
equation
E = h = hc/
e.g. the x-ray photon with
wavelength 1Å has energy
12.5 keV
 X-rays are produced
whenever high-speed
electrons
W collide with a metal
target.
A source of electrons – hot
W filament, a high
accelerating voltage
target X-rays Vacuum (30-50kV) between the
cathode (W) and the anode
and a metal target.
The anode is a water-cooled
block of Cu containing
desired target metal.
 4.1.2 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Emitted gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. It
is the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short
wavelength of less than one-tenth of a nano-meter. Gamma rays are
essentially very energetic x-rays emitted by excited nuclei. They often
accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those
particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state.
Man made sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to
atoms of the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron,
energy is released in the form of gamma rays. Two of the more common
industrial Gamma-ray sources are Iridium-192 and Colbalt-60. These
isotopes emit radiation in two or three discreet wavelengths. Cobalt 60
will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and iridium-192 will emit
0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays.
Advantages of gamma ray sources include portability and the ability to
penetrate thick materials in a relativity short time.
Disadvantages include shielding requirements and safety considerations.
 The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
• The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the
X-ray film test object.
•Defects, such as voids, cracks,
inclusions, etc., can be detected.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 Contrast and Definition
Contrast
The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is
radiographic contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the
degree of density difference between adjacent areas on a
radiograph.

It is essential that sufficient

contrast exist between the defect
of interest and the surrounding
area. There is no viewing
technique that can extract
information that does not
already exist in the original
radiograph

low kilovoltage high kilovoltage

 ▣ Can be used in any situation when one wishes to view
the interior of an object
▣ To check for internal faults and construction defects,
e.g. faulty welding
▣ To ‘see’ through what is inside an object
▣ To perform measurements of size, e.g. thickness
measurements of pipes

Standard:
ASTM
– ASTM E94-84a Radiographic Testing
– ASTM E1032-85 Radiographic Examination of
Weldments
– ASTM E1030-84 Radiographic Testing of Metallic
▣ There is an upper limit of thickness through
which the radiation can penetrate, e.g. -ray
from Co-60 can penetrate up to 150mm of steel
▣ The operator must have access to both sides of
an object
▣ Highly skilled operator is required because of
the potential health hazard of the energetic
radiations
▣ Relative expensive equipment
Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is
propagating in a direction that produced a change in thickness that
is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and
often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appearing
as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
 5.1 Introduction
In ultrasonic testing, high-frequency sound
waves are transmitted into a material to
detect imperfections or to locate changes
in material properties.
The most commonly used
ultrasonic testing technique is
pulse echo, whereby sound is
introduced into a test object and
reflections (echoes) from internal
imperfections or the part's
geometrical surfaces are
returned to a receiver. The time
interval between the
transmission and reception of
pulses give clues to the internal
structure of the material.
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and they are reflected back from surfaces or
flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimefn
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

b
a
c
k

s crack
u
0 2 4 r 6 8 plate
10 f
a
Oscilloscope,c or flaw
e
detector screen
▣ Piezoelectric transducers are used for
converting electrical pulses to mechanical
vibrations and vice versa
▣ Commonly used piezoelectric materials are
quartz, Li 2 SO4 , and polarized ceramics
such as BaTiO3 and PbZrO 3 .
▣ Usually the transducers generate ultrasonic
waves with frequencies in the range 2.25 to
5.0 M H z
 Wave Propagation Direction
▣ Longitudinal or
compression
waves
▣ Shear or
transverse waves
▣ Surface or
Rayleigh waves
▣ Plate or Lamb
waves
Symmetrical Asymmetrical
▣ Longitudinal waves
◾ Similar to audible sound
waves
◾ the only type of wave
which can travel through
liquid
▣ Shear waves
◾ generated by passing the
ultrasonic beam through
the material at an angle
◾ Usually a plastic wedge is
used to couple the
transducer to the material
▣ Surface waves
◾ travel with little attenuation in the direction of
propagation but weaken rapidly as the wave
penetrates below the material surface
◾ particle displacement follows an elliptical
orbit
▣ Lamb waves
◾ observed in relatively thin plates only
◾ velocity depends on the thickness of the material
and frequency
 5.2 Equipment & Transducers
5.2.1 Piezoelectric Transducers
The active element of most acoustic
transducers is piezoelectric
ceramic. This ceramic is the heart
of the transducer which converts
electrical to acoustic energy, and
vice versa.
A thin wafer vibrates with a
wavelength that is twice its
thickness, therefore, piezoelectric
crystals are cut to a thickness that is
1/2 the desired
impedance matching
radiated
is achieved
wavelength.
by a Direction of wave
Optimal
matching layer with thickness 1/4 propagation
wavelength.
 Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
Transducers are classified into groups according to the
application.
•Contact: are used for direct
contact inspections. Coupling
materials of water, grease, oils, or
commercial materials are used
to smooth rough surfaces and
transducer andgap
thebetween
component Contact type
prevent an air the
inspected.
• Immersion: do not contact the
component. These transducers
are designed to operate in a
liquid environment and all
connections are watertight.
Wheel and squirter transducers
are examples of such immersion
applications.
immersion
•Dual Element: contain two independently
operating elements in a single housing.
One of the elements transmits and the
other receives. Dual element transducers
are very useful when making thickness
measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects.
Dual element
• Angle Beam: and wedges are typically
used to introduce a refracted shear wave
into the test material. Transducers can be
purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in
adjustable versions where the user
determines the angles of incident and
refraction. They are used to generate
surface waves for use in detecting defects
on the surface of a component.
Angle beam
▣ Fluid couplant or a fluid bath is needed for
effective transmission of ultrasonic from the
transducer to the material
▣ Straight beam contact search unit project a
beam of ultrasonic vibrations perpendicular to
the surface
▣ Angle beam contact units send ultrasonic
beam into the test material at a predetermined
angle to the surface
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can
determine the location of a discontinuity in
a part or structure by accurately
measuring the time required for a short
ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a thickness of
material, reflect from the back or the
surface of a discontinuity, and be returned
to the transducer. In most applications,
this time interval is a few microseconds or
less.
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
where d is the distance from the surface
to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is
the velocity of sound waves in the
material, and t is the measured round-trip
transit time.
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to
introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. An
angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in
from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in
and around welded areas.

▣ Can be used for

testing flat sheet and
plate or pipe and
tubing
▣ Angle beam units are
designed to induce
vibrations in Lamb,
longitudinal, and
shear wave modes
The geometry of the sample below allows the sound
beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve
detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.
▣ With increased
incident angle so
that the
refracted angle
is 90°
▣ Surface waves are
influenced most by
defects close to the
surface
▣ Will travel along
gradual curves with
little or no
reflection from the
curve
 5.4 Data Presentation

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed

in a number of different formats. The three most
common formats are know in the NDT world as
A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations.
Each presentation mode provides a different
way of looking at and evaluating the region of
material being inspected. Modern computerized
ultrasonic scanning systems can display data
in all three presentation forms simultaneously
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an
induced alternating magnetic field. The electrical currents are
called eddy currents because the flow in circles at and just
below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of
eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes,
or changes in the material's conductive and permeability
properties, can be detected with the proper equipment.
▣ Eddy current testing can be used on all electrically conducting
materials with a reasonably smooth surface.
▣ The test equipment consists of a generator (AC power supply), a
test coil and recording equipment, e.g. a galvanometer or an
oscilloscope
▣ Used for crack detection, material thickness measurement
(corrosion detection), sorting materials, coating thickness
measurement, metal detection, etc.
▣ When a A C passes through a
test coil, a primary magnetic
field is set up around the
coil
▣ The A C primary field
induces eddy current in the
test object held below the
test coil
▣ A secondary magnetic field
arises due to the eddy
current
▣ The strength of the
secondary field depends
on electrical and magnetic
properties, structural
integrity, etc., of the test
object
▣ If cracks or other
inhomogeneities are
present, the eddy current,
and hence the secondary
field is affected.
▣ The changes in the
secondary field will be a
‘feedback’ to the primary
coil and affect the primary
current.
▣ The variations of the
primary current can be
easily detected by a simple
circuit which is zeroed
properly beforehand
 6.2 Eddy Current Instruments
Voltmeter
Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic
field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
 Depth of Penetration
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the
coil's winding and flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field.
Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil
and their strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the
image. Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This
phenomenon is known as the skin effect.

The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37%
of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration ().
 6.4 Applications
•Crack Detection
•Material Thickness
Measurements
•Coating Thickness
Measurements
•Conductivity
Measurements
For:
•Material
Identification
•Heat Damage
Detection
 Surface Breaking Cracks
Eddy current inspection is an excellent
method for detecting surface and near
surface defects when the probable defect
location and orientation is well known.

Successful detection requires:

1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position,
and orientation.
2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit
the geometry of the part and the coil must produce
eddy currents that will be disrupted by the flaw.
3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For
surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as
possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. In the lower image, there is
For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are a flaw under the right side
necessary
to get the required depth of
of the coil and it can be see
penetration.
that the eddy currents are
weaker in this area.
 6.5 Advantages of ET
•Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
•Detects surface and near surface defects
•Inspection gives immediate results
•Equipment is very portable
•Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
•Minimum part preparation is required
•Test probe does not need to contact the part
•Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive
materials
 Limitations of ET
•Only conductive materials can be inspected
•Surface must be accessible to the probe
•Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
•Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
•Reference standards needed for setup
•Depth of penetration is limited
•Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the
probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable
▣ Inspection of Raw Products
▣ Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
▣ In-Services Damage
Inspection
▣ Forgings,
▣ Castings,
▣Extrusions,
▣ etc.
▣ Machining
▣ Welding
▣ Grinding
▣ Heat
treating
▣ Plating
▣ etc.
▣ Cracking

▣Corrosion

▣Erosion/Wear

▣ Heat Damage
▣ etc.
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy
current probes into heat
exchanger tubes to check
for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage Probe

Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion
thinning.
Electromagnetic devices
and visual inspections are
used to find broken wires
and other damage to the
wire rope that is used in
chairlifts, cranes and other
lifting devices.
Robotic crawlers
use ultrasound to
inspect the walls of
large above
ground tanks for
signs of thinning
due to corrosion.

Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
• Nondestructive testing is
used extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike
is shown below.
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely
disassembled, cleaned, inspected
and then reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the
parts for cracking.
 Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that
went undetected
in an engine disk
was responsible
for the crash of
United Flight 232.
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release
of a large amount of energy.
To protect against this
dangerous event, the tanks are
inspected using radiography
and ultrasonic testing.
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted
in loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing.
NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are
some of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is
being transported. Radiography of weld joints.
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of
evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques.
Eddy current methods were used to measure the electrical
conductivity of the Bell's bronze casing at a various points to
evaluate its uniformity.
THE
END
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