CSC321: OPERATING SYSTEM (3 UNITS)

COURSE CONTENT
Prerequisite: CSC211, CSC261
Overview of operating systems: roles and purpose,
basic functions device management; processes, threads
and device management, memory management, file
management, OS strategies and technologies, batch
systems, time sharing systems mechanism to support
client server models, hand held device, embedded
systems, influences of network security and
multimedia. OS principles: interrupts, concurrency,
process scheduling strategies. Deadlock-prevention,
avoidance, detection and recovery, manual deadlock
management. Basic synchronization principles. Virtual
memory-address translation, paging and
segmentation.
 
 OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer
user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software
which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives
and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to
interact with a computer's hardware. The software that contains
the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable
applications (spftwares) to interact with a computer's hardware
and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating

System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like
mobile phones, personal computers, mainframe computers,
automobiles, TV, Toys etc.
 DEFINITIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
We have a number of definitions of an Operating System. Let's go through few
of them:

1.An Operating System is the low-level software that supports

a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks and
controlling peripherals.
We can refine this definition as follows:
2. An operating system is a program that acts as an interface
between the user and the computer hardware and controls
the execution of all kinds of programs.
The Following is another definition taken from Wikipedia:
3. An operating system (OS) is system software that manages
computer hardware, software resources, and provides
common services for computer programs.
 Architecture
We can draw a generic architecture diagram of an Operating System as follows:
 OPERATING SYSTEM GENERATIONS
Operating systems have been evolving over the years. We can categorise
this evaluation based on different generations which is briefed below:
0th Generation
The term 0th generation is used to refer to the period of development of computing
when Charles Babbage invented the Analytical Engine and later John Atanasoff
created a computer in 1940. The hardware component technology of this period
was electronic vacuum tubes. There was no Operating System available for this
generation computer and computer programs were written in machine language.
This computers in this generation were inefficient and dependent on the varying
competencies of the individual programmer as operators.
First Generation (1951-1956)
The first generation marked the beginning of commercial computing including
the introduction of Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC I in early 1951, and a bit later,
the IBM 701. System operation was performed with the help of expert
operators and without the benefit of an operating system for a time though
programs began to be written in higher level, procedure-oriented languages,
and thus the operator’s routine expanded. Later mono-programmed
operating system was developed, which eliminated some of the human
intervention in running job and provided programmers with a number of
desirable functions. These systems still continued to operate under the control
of a human operator who used to follow a number of steps to execute a
program. Programming language like FORTRAN was developed by John W.
Second Generation (1956-1964)
The second generation of computer hardware was most notably characterised by
transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the hardware component technology. The
first operating system GMOS was developed by the IBM computer. GMOS was
based on single stream batch processing system, because it collects all similar jobs
in groups or batches and then submits the jobs to the operating system using a
punch card to complete all jobs in a machine. Operating system is cleaned after
completing one job and then continues to read and initiates the next job in punch
card. Researchers began to experiment with multiprogramming and
multiprocessing in their computing services called the time-sharing system. A
noteworthy example is the Compatible Time Sharing System (CTSS), developed at
MIT during the early 1960s.

Third Generation (1964-1979)

The third generation officially began in April 1964 with IBM’s announcement of its
System/360 family of computers. Hardware technology began to use integrated
circuits (ICs) which yielded significant advantages in both speed and economy.
Operating system development continued with the introduction and widespread
adoption of multiprogramming. The idea of taking fuller advantage of the
computer’s data channel I/O capabilities continued to develop. Another progress
which leads to developing of personal computers in fourth generation is a new
development of minicomputers with DEC PDP-1. The third generation was an
exciting time, indeed, for the development of both computer hardware and the
accompanying operating system.
Fourth Generation (1979 – Present)
The fourth generation is characterised by the appearance of
the personal computer and the workstation. The component
technology of the third generation, was replaced by very
large scale integration (VLSI). Many Operating Systems which
we are using today like Windows, Linux, MacOS etc
developed in the fourth generation.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.
The Following are some of important functions of an operating System:
Memory Management
Processor Management
Device Management
File Management
Network Management
Security
Control over system performance
Job accounting
Error detecting aids
Coordination between other software and users
 Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary
Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of
words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed
directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in
the main memory. An Operating System does the following
activities for memory management −
Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in
use by whom, what part are not in use.
In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get
memory when and how much.
Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it
or has been terminated.
 Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process
gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is
called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following
activities for processor management −
Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program
responsible for this task is known as traffic controller.
Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their
respective drivers. It does the following activities for device
management −
Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is
known as the I/O controller.
Decides which process gets the device when and for how much
time.
Allocates the device in the efficient way.
De-allocates devices.
 File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation
and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. An
Operating System does the following activities for file management −
Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective
facilities are often known as file system.
Decides who gets the resources.
Allocates the resources.
De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs:
Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment
of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of
the computer systems.
 Components of Operating System
There are various components of an Operating
System to perform well defined tasks. Though most
of the Operating Systems differ in structure but
logically they have similar components. Each
component must be a well-defined portion of a
system that appropriately describes the functions,
inputs, and outputs.
There are following 8-components of an Operating System:
Process Management
I/O Device Management
File Management
Network Management
Main Memory Management
Secondary Storage Management
Security Management
Command Interpreter System
 Process Management
A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded
in main memory. A process needs certain resources including
CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O devices to accomplish its
task. The process management component manages the
multiple processes running simultaneously on the Operating
System. A program in running state is called a process. The
operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate
processes.
Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.
Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can
communicate with each others
Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent
access to shared data to keep shared data consistent.
Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid
deadlock situation.
 I/O Device Management
One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of
specific hardware devices from the user. I/O Device Management provides an
abstract level of H/W devices and keep the details from applications to ensure
proper use of devices, to prevent errors, and to provide users with convenient
and efficient programming environment.
Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:
Hide the details of H/W devices
Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling
Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.
Network Management
The definition of network management is often broad, as network management
involves several different components. Network management is the process of
managing and administering a computer network. A computer network is a
collection of various types of computers connected with each other. Network
management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of service,
provisioning of networks, and performance management.Network management is
the process of keeping your network healthy for an efficient communication
between different computers. Following are the features of network management:
Network administration
Network maintenance
Network operation
Network provisioning
Network security
 File Management
File management is one of the most visible services of an operating
system. Computers can store information in several different physical
forms; magnetic tape, disk, and drum are the most common forms.
A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the
creator of the file. Mostly files represent data, source and object forms,
and programs.
Data files can be of any type like alphabetic, numeric, and alphanumeric.
A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is
defined by its creator and user.
The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by
managing mass storage device, such as types and disks. Also files are
normally organized into directories to ease their use. These directories
may contain files and other directories and so on.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with file management:
File creation and deletion
Directory creation and deletion
The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
 Main Memory Management
Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a
repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices. Main
memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in the case of
system failure or as soon as system power goes down. The main motivation
behind Memory Management is to maximize memory utilization on the computer
system. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connections with memory management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.
Secondary Storage Management
The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These programs,
together with the data they access, must be in main memory during execution.
Since the main memory is too small to permanently accommodate all data and
program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to backup main
memory. Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage
medium, for both programs and data. Most programs, like compilers, assemblers,
sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are stored on the disk until loaded
into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and destination of their
processing. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
Free space management
Storage allocation
 Security Management
The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen in
the computer system. The various processes in an operating system must be
protected from each other’s activities. For that purpose, various mechanisms which
can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, cpu and other resources can
be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper authorization
from the operating system.
Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of
programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer controls to
be imposed, together with some means of enforcement. For example, memory
addressing hardware ensure that a process can only execute within its own
address space. The timer ensure that no process can gain control of the CPU
without relinquishing it. Finally, no process is allowed to do it’s own I/O, to protect
the integrity of the various peripheral devices.
Command Interpreter System
One of the most important component of an operating system is its command
interpreter. The command interpreter is the primary interface between the user
and the rest of the system. Command Interpreter System executes a user command
by calling one or more number of underlying system programs or system calls.
Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the Operating
System and provides convenient programming environment to the users. Many
commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A program
which reads and interprets control statements is automatically executed. This
program is called the shell and few examples are Windows DOS command
window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.
 Other Important Activities
An Operating System is a complex Software System. Apart from the
above mentioned components and responsibilities, there are many
other activities performed by the Operating System. Few of them are
listed below:
Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it
prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between
request for a service and response from the system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various
jobs and users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages,
and other debugging and error detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.
 OPERATING SYSTEMS strategies and technologies
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
1. Batch operating system: The users of a batch operating system do not interact
with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like
punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing,
jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The
programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then
sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches. The problems with
Batch Systems are as follows −
Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower
than the CPU.
Difficult to provide the desired priority.

2. Time-sharing operating systems: Time-sharing is a technique which enables

many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer
system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among
multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-
Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems,
the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but
the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an
immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the
processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time
is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems
that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to
time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows:

1. Provides the advantage of quick response.
2. Avoids duplication of software.
3. Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows:

4. Problem of reliability.
5. Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
6. Problem of data communication.
 3. Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple
real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are
distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various
communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines).
These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

1. With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use
the resources available at another.
2. Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
3. If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can
potentially continue operating.
4. Better service to the customers.
5. Reduction of the load on the host computer.
6. Reduction of delays in data processing.
 4. Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server
the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and
other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network
operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows
Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell
NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

1. Centralized servers are highly stable.
2. Security is server managed.
3. Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
4. Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
5. The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
6. High cost of buying and running a server.
7. Dependency on a central location for most operations.
8. Regular maintenance and updates are required.
 5. Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls
the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and
display of required updated information is termed as the response time. So in
this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be
used as a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating
system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system
will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems,
etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
1. Hard real-time systems: Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks
complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or
missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is
almost never found.
2. Soft real-time systems: Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-
time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it
completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time
systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects
like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
 OPERATING SYSTEM – SERVICES
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the
programs. It provides programs an environment to execute. It provides
users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −
1.Program execution 2. Input/Output operations 3.File System manipulation
4. Communication 5. Error Detection 6. Resource Allocation 7.Protection

1.Program execution: Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from

user programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file
server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process. A process
includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate,
registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to program management −
i. Loads a program into memory.
ii. Executes the program.
iii. Handles program's execution.
iv. Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
v. Provides a mechanism for process communication.
vi.Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
2. I/O Operation: An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding
driver software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the
users. An Operating System manages the communication between user and device
drivers. I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O
device. Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when
required.
3. File system manipulation: A file represents a collection of related information.
Computers can store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage
purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and
optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like
speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods. A file system is
normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
The Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to file
management −
i. Program needs to read a file or write a file.
ii. The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
iii. Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
iv. Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
v. Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
vi. Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
4. Communication: In case of distributed systems which are a collection
of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock,
the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through
communication lines in the network. The OS handles routing and
connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect
to communication:
i. Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
ii. Both the processes can be on one computer or on different
computers, but are connected through a computer network.
iii. Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by
Shared Memory or by Message Passing.
5. Error handling: Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An
error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory
hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to error handling:
iv. The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
v. The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and
consistent computing.
6. Resource Management: In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment,
resources such as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be
allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to resource management :
i. The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.
ii. CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

7. Protection: Considering a computer system having multiple users and

concurrent execution of multiple processes, the various processes must be
protected from each other's activities. Protection refers to a mechanism or a
way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources
defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to protection:
iii. The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.
iv. The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid
access attempts.
v. The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of
passwords.
 OPERATING SYSTEM – PROPERTIES
BATCH PROCESSING
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the
programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. An operating
system does the following activities related to batch processing −
1. The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands,
programs and data as a single unit.
2. The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any
manual information.
3. Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served
fashion.
4. When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output
for the job gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
 Advantages
1. Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
2. Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished,
without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages
3. Difficult to debug program.
4. A job could enter an infinite loop.
5. Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.
Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by
switching between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact
with each program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to
multitasking:
6. The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and
receives an immediate response.
7. The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple
operations/executes multiple programs at a time.
8. Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
9. These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer
system at a reasonable cost.
10. A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
11. Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as
a process.
When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it
either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to
complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously.
Since each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little
CPU time is needed for each user.
As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user
is given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU
is being shared among many users.
 Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at
the same time, is referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming
assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming
system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and
system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is
never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
1. High and efficient CPU utilization.
2. User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
3. CPU scheduling is required.
4. To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An
Operating system does the following activities related to interactivity −
Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.
Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for
the result.
 Real Time System
Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An
operating system does the following activities related to real-time
system activity.
In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to
sensor data.
The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed
periods of time to ensure correct performance.
Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or
processors in a computer system. An operating system does the
following activities related to distributed environment −
The OS distributes computation logics among several physical
processors.
The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory.
The OS manages the communications between the processors. They
communicate with each other through various communication lines.
 Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers
to putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or
hard disk which is accessible to I/O devices. An operating system does the following
activities related to distributed environment −
Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest
while the slower device catches up.
Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can
perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data
from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its
computing task.

Advantages
1. The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.
2. Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor
operations for another job.
 Operating System - Processes
Process
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must
progress in a sequential fashion. A process is defined as an entity which
represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the system. To put it in
simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we
execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks
mentioned in the program. When a program is loaded into the memory and it
becomes a process, it can be divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and
data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process inside main
memory −
Stack: The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function
parameters, return address and local variables.
Heap: This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.
Text: This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and
the contents of the processor's registers.
Data: This section contains the global and static variables
Program
A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A computer
program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. A
computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when
executed by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can
conclude that a process is a dynamic instance of a computer program. A part of a
computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A
collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as
a software. For example, here is a simple program written in C programming language:
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");

return 0;
}
 Process Life Cycle
When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may
differ in different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not
standardized. In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a
time.

1. Start: This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

2. Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to
have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process
may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the
scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.
3. Running: Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the
process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.
4. Waiting: Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as
waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.
5. Terminated or Exit: Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the
operating system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main
memory.
 Process Control Block (PCB)
A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for
every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all
the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below :
1. Process State: The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running,
waiting, or whatever.
2. Process privileges: This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.
3. Process ID: Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.
4. Pointer: A pointer to parent process
5. Program Counter: Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next
instruction to be executed for this process.
6. CPU registers: Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution
for running state.
7. CPU Scheduling Information: Process priority and other scheduling information
which is required to schedule the process.
8. Memory management information: This includes the information of page table,
memory limits, Segment table depending on memory used by the operating system.
9. Accounting information: This includes the amount of CPU used for process
execution, time limits, execution ID etc.
10. IO status information: This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.
 The architecture of a PCB
The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System
and may contain different information in different operating systems.
Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −

NOTE: The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its

lifetime, and is deleted once the process terminates.
 OPERATING SYSTEM - PROCESS SCHEDULING
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the
running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy. Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such
operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a
time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.
Process Scheduling Queues
The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a separate queue for
each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed in
the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked from its current
queue and moved to its new state queue. The Operating System maintains the following
important process scheduling queues −
1. Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
2. Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
3. Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device
constitute this queue.
The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority,
etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and
run queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the
above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.
Two-State Process Model
Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are
described below:
1. Running: When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the
running state.
2. Not Running: Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their
turn to execute. Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is
implemented by using linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a process is
interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting queue. If the process has
completed or aborted, the process is discarded. In either case, the dispatcher then
selects a process from the queue to execute.
Schedulers
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various
ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to
decide which process to run. Schedulers are of three types −
1. Long-Term Scheduler
2. Short-Term Scheduler
3. Medium-Term Scheduler
1. Long Term Scheduler: It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines
which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue
and loads them into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU
scheduling.
The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O
bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of
multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to the
average departure rate of processes leaving the system. On some systems, the long-term
scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing operating systems have no long term
scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to ready, then there is use of long-term
scheduler.
2. Short Term Scheduler: It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase
system performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready
state to running state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes
that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to
execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.
3. Medium Term Scheduler: Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the
processes from the memory. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term
scheduler is in-charge of handling the swapped out-processes.
A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A suspended processes
cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from
memory and make space for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the
secondary storage. This process is called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out
or rolled out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.
 Comparison among Scheduler
1. Long-Term Scheduler
1. It is a job scheduler
2. Speed is lesser than short term scheduler
3. It controls the degree of multiprogramming
4. It is almost absent or minimal in time sharing system
5. It selects processes from pool and loads them into memory for execution

2. Short-Term Scheduler
1. It is a CPU scheduler
2. Speed is fastest among other two
3. It provides lesser control over degree of multiprogramming
4. It is also minimal in time sharing system
5. It selects those processes which are ready to execute

3. Medium-Term Scheduler
2. It is a process swapping scheduler.
3. Speed is in between both short and long term scheduler.
4. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming.
5. It is a part of Time sharing systems.
6. It can re-introduce the process into memory and execution can be continued.
 Context Switch
A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of
a CPU in Process Control block so that a process execution can be resumed
from the same point at a later time. Using this technique, a context switcher
enables multiple processes to share a single CPU. Context switching is an
essential part of a multitasking operating system features.
When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute
another, the state from the current running process is stored into the process
control block. After this, the state for the process to run next is loaded from
its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second
process can start executing.
Context switches are computationally intensive since register
and memory state must be saved and restored. To avoid the
amount of context switching time, some hardware systems
employ two or more sets of processor registers. When the
process is switched, the following information is stored for
later use.
Program Counter
Scheduling information
Base and limit register value
Currently used register
Changed State
I/O State information
Accounting information
 OPERATING SYSTEM SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS
A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based
on particular scheduling algorithms. There are six popular process scheduling
algorithms which includes:
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
2. Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
3. Priority Scheduling
4. Shortest Remaining Time
5. Round Robin(RR) Scheduling
6. Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling
These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive. Non-preemptive
algorithms are designed so that once a process enters the running state, it cannot be
preempted until it completes its allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is
based on priority where a scheduler may preempt a low priority running process
anytime when a high priority process enters into a ready state.

1. First Come First Serve (FCFS)

Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.
It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
Easy to understand and implement.
Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.
Poor in performance as average wait time is high.
 2. Shortest Job Next (SJN)
This is also known as shortest job first, or SJF
This is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
Best approach to minimize waiting time.
Easy to implement in Batch systems where required CPU time is known in advance.
Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
The processer should know in advance how much time process will take.

3. Shortest Remaining Time

Shortest remaining time (SRT) is the preemptive version of the SJN algorithm.
The processor is allocated to the job closest to completion but it can be preempted by a
newer ready job with shorter time to completion.
Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
It is often used in batch environments where short jobs need to give preference.

4. Round Robin Scheduling

Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling algorithm.
Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called a quantum.
Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is preempted and other process executes
for a given time period.
Context switching is used to save states of preempted processes.
 6. Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling
Multiple-level queues are not an independent scheduling algorithm. They make use
of other existing algorithms to group and schedule jobs with common
characteristics.
Multiple queues are maintained for processes with common characteristics.
Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
Priorities are assigned to each queue.
For example, CPU-bound jobs can be scheduled in one queue and all I/O-bound jobs
in another queue. The Process Scheduler then alternately selects jobs from each
queue and assigns them to the CPU based on the algorithm assigned to the queue.

Operating System - Multi-Threading

What is Thread?
A thread is a flow of execution through the process code, with its own program
counter that keeps track of which instruction to execute next, system registers which
hold its current working variables, and a stack which contains the execution history.
A thread shares with its peer threads few information like code segment, data
segment and open files. When one thread alters a code segment memory item, all
other threads see that.
A thread is also called a lightweight process. Threads provide a way to improve
application performance through parallelism. Threads represent a software
approach to improving performance of operating system by reducing the overhead
Each thread belongs to exactly one process and no thread can exist
outside a process. Each thread represents a separate flow of control.
Threads have been successfully used in implementing network servers
and web server. They also provide a suitable foundation for parallel
execution of applications on shared memory multiprocessors. The
following figure shows the working of a single-threaded and a
multithreaded process.
 Difference between Process and Thread

Process
1. Process is heavy weight or resource 7. Thread is light weight, taking lesser
intensive. resources than a process.
2. Process switching needs interaction 2. Thread switching does not need to
with operating system. interact with operating system.
3. In multiple processing environments, 3. All threads can share same set of open
each process executes the same code files, child processes.
but has its own memory and file
resources.
4. If one process is blocked, then no 4. While one thread is blocked and
other process can execute until the waiting, a second thread in the same
first process is unblocked. task can run.
5. Multiple processes without using 5. Multiple threaded processes use fewer
threads use more resources. resources.
6. In multiple processes each process
operates independently of the others. 6. One thread can read, write or change
another thread's data
 Advantages of Thread
1. Threads minimize the context switching time.
2. Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.
3. Efficient communication.
4. It is more economical to create and context switch threads.
5. Threads allow utilization of multiprocessor architectures to a greater scale and efficiency.
Types of Thread
Threads are implemented in following two ways: 1. User Level Threads − User managed threads.
2. Kernel Level Threads − Operating System managed threads acting on kernel, an operating
system core.
1. User Level Threads
In this case, the thread management kernel is not aware of the existence of threads. The thread
library contains code for creating and destroying threads, for passing message and data between
threads, for scheduling thread execution and for saving and restoring thread contexts. The
application starts with a single thread.
 Advantages User Level Threads
Thread switching does not require Kernel mode privileges.
User level thread can run on any operating system.
Scheduling can be application specific in the user level thread.
User level threads are fast to create and manage.
Disadvantages User Level Threads
In a typical operating system, most system calls are blocking.
Multithreaded application cannot take advantage of multiprocessing.
Kernel Level Threads
In this case, thread management is done by the Kernel. There is no thread management code in the
application area. Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating system. Any application can
be programmed to be multithreaded. All of the threads within an application are supported within a
single process.
The Kernel maintains context information for the process as a whole and for individuals threads
within the process. Scheduling by the Kernel is done on a thread basis. The Kernel performs thread
creation, scheduling and management in Kernel space. Kernel threads are generally slower to create
and manage than the user threads.
Advantages
Kernel can simultaneously schedule multiple threads from the same process on multiple processes.
If one thread in a process is blocked, the Kernel can schedule another thread of the same process.
Kernel routines themselves can be multithreaded.
Disadvantages
Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than the user threads.
Transfer of control from one thread to another within the same process requires a mode switch to
the Kernel.
 Multithreading Models
Some operating system provide a combined user level thread and Kernel level thread facility.
Solaris is a good example of this combined approach. In a combined system, multiple threads
within the same application can run in parallel on multiple processors and a blocking system
call need not block the entire process.
three types Multithreading models
1. Many to many relationship 2. Many to one relationship 3. One to one relationship.
1. Many to Many Model
The many-to-many model multiplexes any number of user threads onto an equal or smaller
number of kernel threads. The following diagram shows the many-to-many threading model
where 6 user level threads are multiplexing with 6 kernel level threads. In this model,
developers can create as many user threads as necessary and the corresponding Kernel
threads can run in parallel on a multiprocessor machine. This model provides the best
accuracy on concurrency and when a thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can
schedule another thread for execution.
 Many to One Model
Many-to-one model maps many user level threads to one Kernel-level thread. Thread
management is done in user space by the thread library. When thread makes a blocking
system call, the entire process will be blocked. Only one thread can access the Kernel at a
time, so multiple threads are unable to run in parallel on multiprocessors. If the user-level
thread libraries are implemented in the operating system in such a way that the system does
not support them, then the Kernel threads use the many-to-one relationship modes.

One to One Model

There is one-to-one relationship of user-level thread to the kernel-level thread. This model
provides more concurrency than the many-to-one model. It also allows another thread to run
when a thread makes a blocking system call. It supports multiple threads to execute in parallel
on microprocessors.
Disadvantage of this model is that creating user thread requires the corresponding Kernel
thread. OS/2, windows NT and windows 2000 use one to one relationship model.
 Operating System - Memory Management
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or
manages primary memory and moves processes back and forth between main memory
and disk during execution. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory
location, regardless of either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how
much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory
at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and
correspondingly it updates the status.
Process Address Space
The process address space is the set of logical addresses that a process references in its
code. For example, when 32-bit addressing is in use, addresses can range from 0 to
0x7fffffff; that is, 2^31 possible numbers, for a total theoretical size of 2 gigabytes. The
operating system takes care of mapping the logical addresses to physical addresses at the
time of memory allocation to the program. There are three types of addresses used in a
program before and after memory is allocated −
1. Symbolic addresses: The addresses used in a source code. The variable names,
constants, and instruction labels are the basic elements of the symbolic address space.
2. Relative addresses: At the time of compilation, a compiler converts symbolic addresses
into relative addresses.
3. Physical addresses: The loader generates these addresses at the time when a program
is loaded into main memory.
Virtual and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time
address-binding schemes. Virtual and physical addresses differ in execution-
time address-binding scheme.
The set of all logical addresses generated by a program is referred to as
a logical address space. The set of all physical addresses corresponding to
these logical addresses is referred to as a physical address space. The runtime
mapping from virtual to physical address is done by the memory
management unit (MMU) which is a hardware device. MMU uses following
mechanism to convert virtual address to physical address.
The value in the base register is added to every address generated by a user
process, which is treated as offset at the time it is sent to memory. For
example, if the base register value is 10000, then an attempt by the user to
use address location 100 will be dynamically reallocated to location 10100.
The user program deals with virtual addresses; it never sees the real physical
addresses.
 Static vs Dynamic Loading
The choice between Static or Dynamic Loading is to be made at the time of computer program being
developed. If you have to load your program statically, then at the time of compilation, the
complete programs will be compiled and linked without leaving any external program or module
dependency. The linker combines the object program with other necessary object modules into an
absolute program, which also includes logical addresses.
If you are writing a Dynamically loaded program, then your compiler will compile the program and
for all the modules which you want to include dynamically, only references will be provided and rest
of the work will be done at the time of execution.At the time of loading, with static loading, the
absolute program (and data) is loaded into memory in order for execution to start. If you are
using dynamic loading, dynamic routines of the library are stored on a disk in relocatable form and
are loaded into memory only when they are needed by the program.
Static vs Dynamic Linking
As explained above, when static linking is used, the linker combines all other modules needed by a
program into a single executable program to avoid any runtime dependency.
When dynamic linking is used, it is not required to link the actual module or library with the
program, rather a reference to the dynamic module is provided at the time of compilation and
linking. Dynamic Link Libraries (DLL) in Windows and Shared Objects in Unix are good examples of
dynamic libraries.
Swapping
Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of main memory (or
move) to secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some
later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary storage to main memory.
Though performance is usually affected by swapping process but it helps in running multiple and big
processes in parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for memory
The total time taken by swapping process includes the time it takes to move the entire process
to a secondary disk and then to copy the process back to memory, as well as the time the
process takes to regain main memory.
Let us assume that the user process is of size 2048KB and on a standard hard disk where
swapping will take place has a data transfer rate around 1 MB per second. The actual transfer
of the 1000K process to or from memory will take
2048KB / 1024KB per second = 2 seconds = 2000 milliseconds. Now considering in and out
time, it will take complete 4000 milliseconds plus other overhead where the process competes
to regain main memory.
 Memory Allocation
Main memory usually has two partitions −
Low Memory − Operating system resides in this memory.
High Memory − User processes are held in high memory.

Operating system uses the following memory allocation mechanism.

1. Single-partition allocation: In this type of allocation, relocation-register scheme is
used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system
code and data. Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address
whereas limit register contains range of logical addresses. Each logical address must
be less than the limit register.
2. Multiple-partition allocation: In this type of allocation, main memory is divided
into a number of fixed-sized partitions where each partition should contain only one
process. When a partition is free, a process is selected from the input queue and is
loaded into the free partition. When the process terminates, the partition becomes
available for another process.
Fragmentation
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space
is broken into little pieces. It happens after sometimes that processes cannot
be allocated to memory blocks considering their small size and memory
blocks remains unused. This problem is known as Fragmentation.
 fragmentation is of two types −
1. External fragmentation: Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to
reside a process in it, but it is not contiguous, so it cannot be used.
2. Internal fragmentation: Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some portion
of memory is left unused, as it cannot be used by another process.
Note: The following diagram shows how fragmentation can cause waste of memory
and a compaction technique can be used to create more free memory out of
fragmented memory −

External fragmentation can be reduced by compaction or shuffle memory contents to place all
free memory together in one large block. To make compaction feasible, relocation should be
dynamic.
The internal fragmentation can be reduced by effectively assigning the smallest partition but
large enough for the process.
 Paging
A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the system.
This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a hard that's set up to
emulate the computer's RAM. Paging technique plays an important role in implementing
virtual memory.
Paging is a memory management technique in which process address space is broken into
blocks of the same size called pages (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes).
The size of the process is measured in the number of pages.
Similarly, main memory is divided into small fixed-sized blocks of (physical) memory
called frames and the size of a frame is kept the same as that of a page to have optimum
utilization of the main memory and to avoid external fragmentation.
 Address Translation
Page address is called logical address and represented by page number and the offset.
Logical Address = Page number + page offset Frame address is called physical address and
represented by a frame number and the offset.
Physical Address = Frame number + page offset A data structure called page map table is used
to keep track of the relation between a page of a process to a frame in physical memory.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging

Here is a list of advantages and disadvantages of paging −
Paging reduces external fragmentation, but still suffer from internal fragmentation.
Paging is simple to implement and assumed as an efficient memory management
technique.
Due to equal size of the pages and frames, swapping becomes very easy.
Page table requires extra memory space, so may not be good for a system having
small RAM.
 Segmentation
Segmentation is a memory management technique in which each job is divided into several
segments of different sizes, one for each module that contains pieces that perform related
functions. Each segment is actually a different logical address space of the program. When a
process is to be executed, its corresponding segmentation are loaded into non-contiguous
memory though every segment is loaded into a contiguous block of available memory.
Segmentation memory management works very similar to paging but here segments are of
variable-length where as in paging pages are of fixed size. A program segment contains the
program's main function, utility functions, data structures, and so on. The operating system
maintains a segment map table for every process and a list of free memory blocks along with
segment numbers, their size and corresponding memory locations in main memory. For each
segment, the table stores the starting address of the segment and the length of the segment.
A reference to a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an offset.
 Operating System - Virtual Memory
A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed on the system.
This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is a section of a hard disk that's set
up to emulate the computer's RAM.
The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical
memory. Virtual memory serves two purposes. First, it allows us to extend the use of physical
memory by using disk. Second, it allows us to have memory protection, because each virtual
address is translated to a physical address. Following are the situations, when entire program
is not required to be loaded fully in main memory.
User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in the data or
computation.
Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.
Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a small amount
of the table is actually used.
The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many
benefits.
Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.
A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is
available.
Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same
time, with a corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.
Modern microprocessors intended for general-purpose use, a memory management unit, or
MMU, is built into the hardware. The MMU's job is to translate virtual addresses into physical
addresses. A basic example is given below −
Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. It can also be implemented in a
segmentation system. Demand segmentation can also be used to provide virtual memory.
Demand Paging
A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping where processes
reside in secondary memory and pages are loaded only on demand, not in advance. When a
context switch occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the old program’s pages out
to the disk or any of the new program’s pages into the main memory Instead, it just begins
executing the new program after loading the first page and fetches that program’s pages as
they are referenced.
While executing a program, if the program references a page which is not available in the main
memory because it was swapped out a little ago, the processor treats this invalid memory
reference as a page fault and transfers control from the program to the operating system to
demand the page back into the memory.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of Demand Paging −
Large virtual memory.
More efficient use of memory.
There is no limit on degree of multiprogramming.
Disadvantages
Number of tables and the amount of processor overhead for handling page interrupts are
greater than in the case of the simple paged management techniques.
 Page Replacement Algorithm
Page replacement algorithms are the techniques using which an Operating System decides
which memory pages to swap out, write to disk when a page of memory needs to be
allocated. Paging happens whenever a page fault occurs and a free page cannot be used for
allocation purpose accounting to reason that pages are not available or the number of free
pages is lower than required pages. When the page that was selected for replacement and
was paged out, is referenced again, it has to read in from disk, and this requires for I/O
completion. This process determines the quality of the page replacement algorithm: the lesser
the time waiting for page-ins, the better is the algorithm.
A page replacement algorithm looks at the limited information about accessing the pages
provided by hardware, and tries to select which pages should be replaced to minimize the
total number of page misses, while balancing it with the costs of primary storage and
processor time of the algorithm itself. There are many different page replacement algorithms.
We evaluate an algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory reference and
computing the number of page faults,
Reference String
The string of memory references is called reference string. Reference strings are generated
artificially or by tracing a given system and recording the address of each memory reference.
The latter choice produces a large number of data, where we note two things.
For a given page size, we need to consider only the page number, not the entire address.
If we have a reference to a page p, then any immediately following references to page p will
never cause a page fault. Page p will be in memory after the first reference; the immediately
following references will not fault.
For example, consider the following sequence of addresses − 123,215,600,1234,76,96
If page size is 100, then the reference string is 1,2,6,12,0,0
 First In First Out (FIFO) algorithm
Oldest page in main memory is the one which will be selected for replacement. Easy to
implement, keep a list, replace pages from the tail and add new pages at the head.

Optimal Page algorithm

An optimal page-replacement algorithm has the lowest page-fault rate of all algorithms. An
optimal page-replacement algorithm exists, and has been called OPT or MIN. It replace the
page that will not be used for the longest period of time. Use the time when a page is to be
used.
 Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm
Page which has not been used for the longest time in main memory is the one which will be
selected for replacement. Easy to implement, keep a list, replace pages by looking back into
time.

Page Buffering algorithm

To get a process start quickly, keep a pool of free frames. On page fault, select a page to be
replaced. Write the new page in the frame of free pool, mark the page table and restart the
process. Now write the dirty page out of disk and place the frame holding replaced page in
free pool.
Least frequently Used(LFU) algorithm
The page with the smallest count is the one which will be selected for replacement. This
algorithm suffers from the situation in which a page is used heavily during the initial phase of
a process, but then is never used again. Most frequently Used(MFU) algorithm, This algorithm
is based on the argument that the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in
and has yet to be used.
 Operating System - I/O Hardware
One of the important jobs of an Operating System is to manage various I/O devices including
mouse, keyboards, touch pad, disk drives, display adapters, USB devices, Bit-mapped screen,
LED, Analog-to-digital converter, On/off switch, network connections, audio I/O, printers etc.
An I/O system is required to take an application I/O request and send it to the physical device,
then take whatever response comes back from the device and send it to the application. I/O
devices can be divided into two categories −
Block devices − A block device is one with which the driver communicates by sending entire
blocks of data. For example, Hard disks, USB cameras, Disk-On-Key etc.
Character devices − A character device is one with which the driver communicates by sending
and receiving single characters (bytes, octets). For example, serial ports, parallel ports, sounds
cards etc
Device Controllers
Device drivers are software modules that can be plugged into an OS to handle a particular
device. Operating System takes help from device drivers to handle all I/O devices. The Device
Controller works like an interface between a device and a device driver. I/O units (Keyboard,
mouse, printer, etc.) typically consist of a mechanical component and an electronic
component where electronic component is called the device controller.
There is always a device controller and a device driver for each device to communicate with
the Operating Systems. A device controller may be able to handle multiple devices. As an
interface its main task is to convert serial bit stream to block of bytes, perform error
correction as necessary. Any device connected to the computer is connected by a plug and
socket, and the socket is connected to a device controller. Following is a model for connecting
the CPU, memory, controllers, and I/O devices where CPU and device controllers all use a
 Synchronous vs asynchronous I/O
Synchronous I/O − In this scheme CPU execution waits while I/O proceeds
Asynchronous I/O − I/O proceeds concurrently with CPU execution
Communication to I/O Devices
The CPU must have a way to pass information to and from an I/O device. There are three
approaches available to communicate with the CPU and Device.
1. Special Instruction I/O
2. Memory-mapped I/O
3. Direct memory access (DMA)
1. Special Instruction I/O: This uses CPU instructions that are specifically made for
controlling I/O devices. These instructions typically allow data to be sent to an I/O
device or read from an I/O device.
2. Memory-mapped I/O: When using memory-mapped I/O, the same address space
is shared by memory and I/O devices. The device is connected directly to certain
main memory locations so that I/O device can transfer block of data to/from
memory without going through CPU.
While using memory mapped IO, OS allocates buffer in memory and informs I/O
device to use that buffer to send data to the CPU. I/O device operates
asynchronously with CPU, interrupts CPU when finished.
The advantage to this method is that every instruction which can access memory can
be used to manipulate an I/O device. Memory mapped IO is used for most high-
speed I/O devices like disks, communication interfaces.
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Slow devices like keyboards will generate an interrupt to the main CPU after each
byte is transferred. If a fast device such as a disk generated an interrupt for each
byte, the operating system would spend most of its time handling these interrupts.
So a typical computer uses direct memory access (DMA) hardware to reduce this
overhead.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) means CPU grants I/O module authority to read from
or write to memory without involvement. DMA module itself controls exchange of
data between main memory and the I/O device. CPU is only involved at the
beginning and end of the transfer and interrupted only after entire block has been
transferred. Direct Memory Access needs a special hardware called DMA controller
(DMAC) that manages the data transfers and arbitrates access to the system bus. The
controllers are programmed with source and destination pointers (where to
read/write the data), counters to track the number of transferred bytes, and
settings, which includes I/O and memory types, interrupts and states for the CPU
cycles.
 Polling vs Interrupts I/O
A computer must have a way of detecting the arrival of any type of input. There are two ways
that this can happen, known as polling and interrupts. Both of these techniques allow the
processor to deal with events that can happen at any time and that are not related to the
process it is currently running.
Polling I/O
Polling is the simplest way for an I/O device to communicate with the processor. The process
of periodically checking status of the device to see if it is time for the next I/O operation, is
called polling. The I/O device simply puts the information in a Status register, and the
processor must come and get the information.
Most of the time, devices will not require attention and when one does it will have to wait
until it is next interrogated by the polling program. This is an inefficient method and much of
the processors time is wasted on unnecessary polls. Compare this method to a teacher
continually asking every student in a class, one after another, if they need help. Obviously the
more efficient method would be for a student to inform the teacher whenever they require
assistance.
 Interrupts I/O
An alternative scheme for dealing with I/O is the interrupt-driven method. An
interrupt is a signal to the microprocessor from a device that requires attention.
A device controller puts an interrupt signal on the bus when it needs CPU’s attention
when CPU receives an interrupt, It saves its current state and invokes the
appropriate interrupt handler using the interrupt vector (addresses of OS routines to
handle various events). When the interrupting device has been dealt with, the CPU
continues with its original task as if it had never been interrupted.

I/O software is often organized in the following layers −

User Level Libraries − This provides simple interface to the user program to
perform input and output. For example, stdio is a library provided by C and C++
programming languages.
Kernel Level Modules − This provides device driver to interact with the device
controller and device independent I/O modules used by the device drivers.
Hardware − This layer includes actual hardware and hardware controller which
interact with the device drivers and makes hardware alive.
A key concept in the design of I/O software is that it should be device independent
where it should be possible to write programs that can access any I/O device without
having to specify the device in advance. For example, a program that reads a file as
input should be able to read a file on a floppy disk, on a hard disk, or on a CD-ROM,
without having to modify the program for each different device.
 Device Drivers
Device drivers are software modules that can be plugged into an OS to handle a particular
device. Operating System takes help from device drivers to handle all I/O devices. Device
drivers encapsulate device-dependent code and implement a standard interface in such a way
that code contains device-specific register reads/writes. Device driver, is generally written by
the device's manufacturer and delivered along with the device on a CD-ROM.
A device driver performs the following jobs −
To accept request from the device independent software above to it.
Interact with the device controller to take and give I/O and perform required error handling
Making sure that the request is executed successfully
How a device driver handles a request is as follows: Suppose a request comes to read a block
N. If the driver is idle at the time a request arrives, it starts carrying out the request
immediately. Otherwise, if the driver is already busy with some other request, it places the
new request in the queue of pending requests.
 Interrupt handlers
An interrupt handler, also known as an interrupt service routine or ISR, is a piece of
software or more specifically a callback function in an operating system or more
specifically in a device driver, whose execution is triggered by the reception of an
interrupt. When the interrupt happens, the interrupt procedure does whatever it has to
in order to handle the interrupt, updates data structures and wakes up process that was
waiting for an interrupt to happen.
The interrupt mechanism accepts an address ─ a number that selects a specific interrupt
handling routine/function from a small set. In most architectures, this address is an offset
stored in a table called the interrupt vector table. This vector contains the memory
addresses of specialized interrupt handlers.

Deadlock prevention
Deadlock prevention is a technique used in computer science to avoid situations
where multiple processes or threads are blocked and unable to proceed because
they are waiting for each other to release resources that they need to complete
their tasks. Deadlocks can be detrimental to the performance of a system and
can cause significant delays in completing tasks. To prevent deadlocks, various
techniques such as resource allocation graph, preemptive scheduling, and
detection and recovery are used. Each of these techniques helps in ensuring that
resources are used efficiently and prevent situations where a deadlock may
occur, thereby ensuring optimal performance of the system.
 Definition of Deadlock Prevention
Deadlock prevention is a technique used in computer science to avoid situations
where multiple processes or threads are blocked and unable to proceed because
they are waiting for each other to release resources that they need to complete their
tasks. The main goal of deadlock prevention is to ensure that resources are used
efficiently and that situations where a deadlock may occur are avoided. By
implementing appropriate techniques for preventing deadlocks, computer systems
can improve their efficiency, reduce delays, and avoid the risk of system failure
caused by deadlocks. Deadlock prevention techniques may include resource
allocation graph, preemptive scheduling, detection and recovery, or a combination
of these methods.
Importance of Preventing Deadlocks
Preventing deadlocks is crucial for ensuring the smooth operation and optimal
performance of computer systems. Deadlocks occur when multiple processes or
threads are blocked and unable to proceed because they are waiting for each other to
release resources that they need to complete their tasks. This can result in significant
delays in completing tasks, reduced system performance, and even system failure.
Deadlocks can be especially problematic in real-time systems, where delays can have
severe consequences. Therefore, preventing deadlocks is essential to ensure that
computer systems operate efficiently, effectively, and reliably. By implementing
appropriate techniques for preventing deadlocks, computer systems can improve their
performance, reduce delays, and avoid the risk of system failure caused by deadlocks.
 Resource Allocation Graph
Resource allocation graph is a technique used for preventing deadlocks in computer
systems. In this technique, resources are represented as nodes in a directed graph, and
the edges represent the requests for resources. There are two types of edges in the
graph - request edges and assignment edges. A request edge points from a process to
a resource that the process needs, while an assignment edge points from a resource to
a process that has been allocated that resource.
Detection of cycles in the graph Explanation of resource allocation graph
Deadlocks can occur in the resource allocation graph when there is a cycle in the graph. A
cycle in the graph indicates that a process is waiting for a resource that is held by another
process that is also waiting for a resource held by the first process. This situation creates a
deadlock, and no process can proceed further.
Prevention of deadlocks using resource allocation graph
To prevent deadlocks using the resource allocation graph technique, the system must
ensure that no cycles exist in the graph. If a cycle exists, it means that a deadlock may
occur, and the system must take appropriate steps to break the cycle. This can be done by
either releasing a resource or preemptively removing a resource from a process that is
holding it. By breaking the cycle, the system ensures that no deadlock can occur.
In summary, the resource allocation graph is a useful technique for preventing deadlocks in
computer systems. It allows the system to monitor the use of resources and detect
potential deadlocks by analyzing the graph for cycles. By taking appropriate steps to break
the cycle, the system can avoid the occurrence of deadlocks and ensure the smooth
operation of the system.
 Preemptive Scheduling
Preemptive scheduling is a technique used for preventing deadlocks in computer
systems. In this technique, the system is designed to preempt a process that is holding
a resource for too long. When a process is preempted, the system forces the process
to release the resource, which can then be allocated to another process that needs it.
Explanation of preemptive scheduling
To identify processes that are holding resources for too long, the system can use
various techniques such as monitoring the waiting time of processes, tracking the use
of resources, and analyzing the behavior of processes. Once the system identifies a
process that is holding a resource for too long, it can preempt that process and force it
to release the resource.
Forced release of resources to prevent deadlocks
Forced release of resources can prevent deadlocks by ensuring that resources are not
held for extended periods. When a resource is released, it can be allocated to another
process that needs it, thereby preventing a situation where multiple processes are
blocked and unable to proceed.
Preemptive scheduling can be an effective technique for preventing deadlocks, but it
may also introduce some overhead and may not be suitable for all systems.
Additionally, preemptive scheduling may impact the performance of the system if too
many processes are preempted, and resources are frequently released and allocated.
Therefore, it is important to use preemptive scheduling judiciously and evaluate its
impact on the system's performance.
 Detection and Recovery
Detection and recovery is a technique used for preventing deadlocks in computer
systems. In this technique, the system periodically checks for the presence of
deadlocks and takes appropriate steps to recover from them if they occur.
Explanation of detection and recovery technique
Periodic deadlock checking: Periodic deadlock checking involves monitoring the use of
resources and analyzing the system's behavior to detect potential deadlocks. The
system can use various algorithms to detect deadlocks, such as the banker's algorithm
or the wait-for graph algorithm. Once a deadlock is detected, the system takes
appropriate recovery steps to break the deadlock and resume normal operation.
Recovery steps such as resource release and process termination
Recovery steps may involve releasing resources that are held by processes involved in
the deadlock or terminating processes that are involved in the deadlock. When a
resource is released, it can be allocated to another process that needs it, thereby
breaking the deadlock. Similarly, when a process is terminated, the resources held by
the process are released and can be allocated to other processes.
Detection and recovery is an effective technique for preventing deadlocks in computer
systems, but it may also introduce some overhead and may not be suitable for all
systems. The frequency of deadlock checking, the recovery steps taken, and the
impact of the technique on system performance must be carefully evaluated to ensure
that it is used appropriately. Additionally, the system must be designed to handle
recovery from deadlocks gracefully and without causing system disruption or data loss.
Comparison of Techniques Advantages and disadvantages of each technique
There are several techniques used for preventing deadlocks in computer systems, and each
technique has its advantages and disadvantages. The appropriate use case for each technique
depends on the system's characteristics, performance requirements, and the type of resources
being used.
Resource allocation graph: Advantages
1. Simple and easy to understand
2. Provides a visual representation of the system's resource usage
3. Can be used to detect potential deadlocks
Disadvantages
4. May not be suitable for complex systems with a large number of resources
5. Requires constant monitoring and analysis to prevent deadlocks
6. May introduce overhead and impact system performance
Appropriate use case − Resource allocation graph is suitable for systems with a small number of
resources and processes.
Preemptive scheduling: Advantages
7. Can be effective in preventing deadlocks
8. Allows the system to preempt processes that are holding resources for too long
9. Can be used in real-time systems
Disadvantages
10. May impact system performance if too many processes are preempted
11. May not be suitable for all systems
Appropriate use case − Preemptive scheduling is suitable for real-time systems where timely
execution is critical, and the system can handle the overhead introduced by preemptive
scheduling.
Detection and recovery: Advantages
1. Can detect and recover from deadlocks
2. Allows the system to recover from deadlocks without disrupting system
operations
3. Can be used in a wide range of systems
Disadvantages
4. May introduce overhead and impact system performance
5. May not be suitable for systems with strict performance requirements
Appropriate use case − Detection and recovery is suitable for systems with a large
number of resources and processes and can be used in a wide range of systems.

Condition for deadlock, its handling and its prevention

Preventing deadlocks is crucial for ensuring the smooth operation and optimal
performance of computer systems. The techniques used for preventing deadlocks,
such as resource allocation graph, preemptive scheduling, and detection and
recovery, help in identifying and avoiding potential deadlocks. By adopting
appropriate deadlock prevention techniques, computer systems can improve their
efficiency, reduce delays, and avoid the risk of system failure caused by deadlocks.
The prevention of deadlocks is an ongoing challenge for computer scientists, and
as technology evolves, new techniques and approaches may need to be developed
to keep pace with changing demands and requirements of modern computing
systems.
A deadlock in the operating system is a situation of indefinite blocking of one or more processes
that compete for resources.
Deadlock involves resources needed by two or more processes at the same time that cannot be
shared. We can understand this from the above example, two cars require the road at the same
time but it cannot be shared as it is one way.
There are four necessary conditions for deadlock. Deadlock happens only when all four
conditions occur simultaneously for unshareable single instance resources.
The conditions for deadlock are:
Mutual exclusion
Hold and wait
No preemption
Circular wait.
There are three ways to handle deadlock:
1. Deadlock prevention: The possibility of deadlock is excluded before making requests,
by eliminating one of the necessary conditions for deadlock. Example: Only allowing
traffic from one direction, will exclude the possibility of blocking the road.
2. Deadlock avoidance: Operating system runs an algorithm on requests to check for a safe
state. Any request that may result in a deadlock is not granted. Example: Checking each car
and not allowing any car that can block the road. If there is already traffic on road, then a
car coming from the opposite direction can cause blockage.
3. Deadlock detection & recovery: OS detects deadlock by regularly checking the system
state, and recovers to a safe state using recovery techniques. Example: Unblocking the road
by backing cars from one side. Deadlock prevention and deadlock avoidance are carried out
before deadlock occurs.
 Deadlock Prevention in Operating System
Deadlock prevention is a set of methods used to ensure that all requests are
safe, by eliminating at least one of the four necessary conditions for deadlock.
A process is a set of instructions. When a process runs, it needs resources like
CPU cycles, Files, or Peripheral device access.
Some of the requests for resources can lead to deadlock.
Deadlock prevention is eliminating one of the necessary conditions of
deadlock so that only safe requests are made to OS and the possibility of
deadlock is excluded before making requests. As now requests are made
carefully, the operating system can grant all requests safely. Here OS does not
need to do any additional tasks as it does in deadlock avoidance by running an
algorithm on requests checking for the possibility of deadlock.
Deadlock Prevention Techniques
Deadlock prevention techniques refer to violating any one of the four
necessary conditions. We will see one by one how we can violate each of them
to make safe requests and which is the best approach to prevent deadlock.
 Handheld Operating System
An operating system is a program whose job is to manage a computer’s hardware. Its
other use is that it also provides a basis for application programs and acts as an
intermediary between the computer user and the computer hardware. An amazing
feature of operating systems is how they vary in accomplishing these tasks. Operating
systems for mobile computers provide us with an environment in which we can easily
interface with the computer so that we can execute the programs. Thus, some of the
operating systems are made to be convenient, others to be well-organized, and the rest
to be some combination of the two.
Handheld operating systems are available in all handheld devices like Smartphones and
tablets. It is sometimes also known as a Personal Digital Assistant. The popular handheld
device in today’s world is Android and iOS. These operating systems need a high-
processing processor and are also embedded with various types of sensors. Some points
related to Handheld operating systems are as follows:
1. Since the development of handheld computers in the 1990s, the demand for software
to operate and run on these devices has increased.
2. Three major competitors have emerged in the handheld PC world with three different
operating systems for these handheld PCs.
3. Out of the three companies, the first was the Palm Corporation with their PalmOS.
4. Microsoft also released what was originally called Windows CE. Microsoft’s recently
released operating system for the handheld PC comes under the name of Pocket PC.
5. More recently, some companies producing handheld PCs have also started offering a
handheld version of the Linux operating system on their machines.
 Features of Handheld Operating System:
Its work is to provide real-time operations.
There is direct usage of interrupts.
Input/Output device flexibility.
Configurability.
Types of Handheld Operating Systems:
Types of Handheld Operating Systems are as follows:
1. Palm OS 2. Symbian OS 3. Linux OS 4.Windows 5. Android

1. Palm OS: Since the Palm Pilot was introduced in 1996, the Palm OS platform has
provided various mobile devices with essential business tools, as well as the capability
that they can access the internet via a wireless connection. These devices have mainly
concentrated on providing basic personal-information-management applications. The
latest Palm products have progressed a lot, packing in more storage, wireless internet, etc.

2. Symbian OS: It has been the most widely-used smartphone operating system
because of its ARM architecture before it was discontinued in 2014. It was developed
by Symbian Ltd. This operating system consists of two subsystems where the first one
is the microkernel-based operating system which has its associated libraries and the
second one is the interface of the operating system with which a user can interact.
Since this operating system consumes very less power, it was developed for
smartphones and handheld devices. It has good connectivity as well as stability. It can
run applications that are written in Python, Ruby, .NET, etc.
3. Linux OS: Linux OS is an open-source operating system project which is a cross-platform
system that was developed based on UNIX. It was developed by Linus Torvalds. It is a system
software that basically allows the apps and users to perform some tasks on the PC.  Linux is free
and can be easily downloaded from the internet and it is considered that it has the best
community support. Linux is portable which means it can be installed on different types of
devices like mobile, computers, and tablets. It is a multi-user operating system. Linux interpreter
program which is called BASH is used to execute commands. It provides user security using
authentication features.
4. Windows OS: Windows is an operating system developed by Microsoft. Its interface which is
called Graphical User Interface eliminates the need to memorize commands for the command
line by using a mouse to navigate through menus, dialog boxes, and buttons. It is named
Windows because its programs are displayed in the form of a square. It has been designed for
both a beginner as well professional. It comes preloaded with many tools which help the users
to complete all types of tasks on their computer, mobiles, etc. It has a large user base so there is
a much larger selection of available software programs. One great feature of Windows is that it
is backward compatible which means that its old programs can run on newer versions as well.
5. Android OS: It is a Google Linux-based operating system that is mainly designed for
touchscreen devices such as phones, tablets, etc. There are three architectures which are ARM,
Intel, and MIPS which are used by the hardware for supporting Android. These lets users
manipulate the devices intuitively, with movements of our fingers that mirror some common
motions such as swiping, tapping, etc. Android operating system can be used by anyone because
it is an open-source operating system and it is also free. It offers 2D and 3D graphics, GSM
connectivity, etc. There is a huge list of applications for users since Play Store offers over one
million apps. Professionals who want to develop applications for the Android OS can download
the Android Development Kit. By downloading it they can easily develop apps for android.
 Advantages of Handheld Operating System:
Some advantages of a Handheld Operating System are as follows:
1. Less Cost.
2. Less weight and size.
3. Less heat generation.
4. More reliability.
Disadvantages of Handheld Operating System:
Some disadvantages of Handheld Operating Systems are as follows:
5. Less Speed.
6. Small Size.
7. Input / Output System (memory issue or less memory is available)
How Handheld operating systems are different from Desktop operating systems?
Since the handheld operating systems are mainly designed to run on machines that
have lower speed resources as well as less memory, they were designed in a way that
they use less memory and require fewer resources. They are also designed to work
with different types of hardware as compared to standard desktop operating systems.
It happens because the power requirements for standard CPUs far exceed the power
of handheld devices.
Handheld devices aren’t able to dissipate large amounts of heat generated by CPUs. To
deal with such kind of problem, big companies like Intel and Motorola have designed
smaller CPUs with lower power requirements and also lower heat generation. Many
handheld devices fully depend on flash memory cards for their internal memory
because large hard drives do not fit into handheld devices.
 Embedded Operating system
All Embedded Systems are task specific. They mostly do a particular task on
loop/repeatedly for their entire lifetime. These systems are designed to execute
their task within a particular time interval, and thus they have to be fast enough to
be up to their time limit. They have little or no user interface like a fully automatic
washing machine does its task fully once its programmed is set and stops after its
work is finished with almost no user interface.
They are built to achieve a particularly good efficiency level. They are very small in
size operating system, need little power. These systems can't at all be upgraded or
updated. Thus, they must be really high on efficiency and reliability as they can't be
updated. This operating system is shown below −
An Embedded OS is a resource-efficient and reliable Operating System designed for
embedded computer systems. Each of the Embedded OS is expected or designed specially
to perform a specific task. It is limited to the given hardware or the particular device.
Characteristics Embedded OS
The characteristics of the embedded operating systems are as follows −
All Embedded Systems are task specific. They mostly do a particular task on
loop/repeatedly for their entire lifetime. All embedded systems are designed to execute
their task within a particular time interval, and thus they have to be fast enough to be up to
their time limit.
They have little or no user interface like a fully automatic washing machine does its task
fully once its programmed is set and stops after its work is finished with almost no user
interface.
They are built to achieve a particularly good efficiency level. They are very small in size
and, need little power. These systems can't at all be upgraded or updated. Thus, they must
be really high on efficiency and reliability as they can't be updated.
Roles of Embedded OS
The roles performed by embedded operating system are as follows −
1. Resource allocator: The role of a resource allocator is to act as a manager. The basic task is to
manage the resources of both the hardware and software to allocate and assign them to the
specific program and user. It helps in the proper use of the OS and also supports the better
execution of the programs.
2. Resource controller: The role of the resource controller is to help the programmer and the
system manager in the creation and the controlling of the subsystem. This task is accomplished
with the help of a certain set of commands and subroutines.
3. Resource monitor: The role of the Resource monitor is to act as a utility in the Windows
Operating System to let the user monitor the use of the hardware that is, CPU, memory,
disk, and network along with the software that is various file handles and modules. This
task is done in real-time and the performance of the OS is improved and utilized as per the
requirement.
4. User-friendly interface: The User interface, usually termed as UI is the medium with the
help of which a user or person interacts with the hardware or the software to get his
required task complete.
Now, the interface which is designed in such a manner that it does not confuse the user
and the user can easily interact with the system is called a User-friendly interface. If the
User interface of a given software or hardware is User-friendly then it gains trust and the
confidence of the user increases respectively. It is more demanded over a normal interface.
Advantages
1. The advantages of embedded operating system are as follows −
2. Portable
3. Much faster than other operating systems
4. Less Hardware requirement
5. Highly Predictable
Disadvantages
6. The disadvantages of embedded operating system are as follows −
7. Less optimization
8. High modification is required
9. Customization is time taking process