Definitions of Communication

 Communication is information passed through previously agreed

symbols.

 Carey (1993) - it is a symbolic process whereby reality is

produced, maintained, repaired and transformed.

 (Fiske, 1992) - Communication is social interaction through

messages.

 Communication is the simultaneous sharing and creating of

meaning through human symbolic interaction. Dimbleby (2000).

 Adler and Rodman add that it is a process where human beings

respond to the symbolic behaviour of other persons.
Etymology
 The word communication comes from the Latin word “communicare”
which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share.’
 Community, commonality, mutuality, sharing, relationships
 Thus communication refers to the basic sequence which begins with a
source, from which a message is passed to a transmitter where it is
encoded into a signal, which is subject to noise on its way to a receiver,
where it is decoded and then passed on to a destination.
 The above is a process-oriented conceptualization of communication
Communication concepts
 Human –animals do communicate but in this context the focus is humans
who can interact verbally and non-verbally.
 Process – a process is a series of activities whose end is easily determined
from the beginning. It is not discreet, i.e. it does not just contain
individual acts that are unrelated. It is not like pictures in a photo album
but like a motion picture.
 Symbolic - symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas or
events in ways that make communication possible. The most symbolic
feature of symbols is their arbitrary nature. This feature is easiest to see
when we observe people who do not follow linguistic conventions
(children and immigrants).
Communication competence
 Competence is situational – it is a mistake to think that
communication competence is a trait one either possesses or
lacks.

 Competence is relational – Communication is transactional,

something we do with others, not to others, behaviour that is
competent in one relationship isn’t necessarily competent in
others.

 Competence can be learned – communication is a set of skills that

anyone can learn. As children grow, their ability to communicate
effectively develops.

 It is the ability to take part in effective communication that is

characterized by skills and understandings that enable
communication partners to exchange messages successfully.
Characteristics of competent
communicators

 Possess a wide range of behaviours

 Have the ability to choose the most appropriate
behaviour
 Possess skill at performing behaviours
 Empathy/Perspective taking
 Cognitive complexity
 Self monitoring
 Commitment to the relationship
Components/Elements of
Communication

 Source – the creator of the message; areceiver can also

function as a source; determines the meaning of what is
to be communicated; encodes meaning into a message;
sends the message; perceives and reacts to a listener’s
response to the message; brings into play his/her
communication skills, knowledge, attitudes and socio-
cultural background…..
Message

 Message – the stimulus produced by the source. It

comprises words, grammar, and organisation of
thoughts, physical appearance, body movement, voice,
personality aspects, the self concept and personal style.
The environment and noise can also shape the message.
Any stimulus that affects a receiver is a message,
regardless of whether the source intended to send it.
Again each message is unique. Even if the same message
were to be created over and over again, it would differ
in each instance because messages cannot be repeated
or received in exactly the same way or in the same
context.
Code, Cue, symbol, signal

 CODE – a code is a systematic arrangement of symbols used to

create meanings in the mind of another person or persons. Syntax
(rules of arrangement in language) and Grammar (rules of function
in language) result in the “systematic arrangement” that becomes
a code. Words, phrases and sentences become “symbols that are
used to evoke images, thoughts and ideas” in the mind of others.
There are two types of codes, verbal codes and non-verbal codes.
Verbal codes consist of symbols and their grammatical
arrangement. All languages are codes. Non-verbal codes consist of
all symbols that are not words. Encoding is the act/process of
putting/translating internal thought patterns into a language or
code that the intended receiver will probably understand (Kreitner
2000: 354). Decoding takes place when the receiver uses his or her
cognitive abilities to process the received codes and signals before
translating them into his or her language system (Berko, Wolvin
and Wolvin 1998: 10).
Interference, Noise

 INTERFERENCE – Noise refers to any interference in the

encoding and decoding processes that reduces message
clarity. Interference can be external and physical e.g.
noise caused by a slammed door, the blasting of a
stereo, unpleasant environment, a smoke filled room, a
room too hot, cold, a speech impediment or clothing.
Channel, Medium

 CHANNEL – A channel is the means/route/pathway by

which messages flow between sources and receivers.
The usual communication channels are light waves and
sound waves, which allow us to see and hear one
another. When two people talk face to face, light and
sound waves in the air serve as the channel. We also
receive communication by smelling, touching and
tasting. All five senses therefore contribute as channels
to communication. The choice of channel is also
determined by the intended recipients of the message.
Visuals are of no use to a blind audience.
Receiver

 RECEIVER – A receiver analyses and interprets messages, in

effect translating them into meaning. This process is called
decoding i.e. the process of translating a message into the
thoughts or feelings that were communicated. It is the
process of assigning meaning to the idea or thought in a
code. A receiver is also a source. As one listens to another’s
message they react with body movements, facial expressions
and even silence and the person sending the initial message
receives the information conveyed by the physical reactions.
Like the source, the receiver also has several roles: to
receive (hear, see, touch, smell or taste) the message, to
attend to the message, to interpret and analyse the
message; to store and recall the message and to respond to
the source, message, channel, environment and noise.
Feedback

 FEEDBACK – refers to the response to a message that a

receiver sends back to a source. Feedback enables a
sender to determine whether the communication has
been received and understood as intended. Feedback is
a natural extension of effective receiving. Thus,
feedback serves as a kind of control mechanism in the
communication process. It makes communication an
interactive process. Unfortunately we too often fail to
monitor our own communication, and more important,
others’ reactions to it, so we are often not heard or are
misunderstood. Feedback helps us to learn about
ourselves, adjust to others and assess ourselves.
Context

 CONTEXT – The broad circumstances or situation in

which communication occurs is called the context.
Communication does not occur in a vacuum but in
formal and informal settings. The number of people,
the type of communication and the situation in which
the communication occurs all lend themselves to the
context. Contexts also influence environment and vice
versa and also help to determine the type of
communication that would be used.
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Principles of Communication

It is a process
It is a system
It is both transactional
and interactional
It is contextual
Misconceptions about
communication
 Quantity means quality/more communication is always
better
 Communication is a cure-all/will solve all problems
 Communication is always a good thing
 Meaning is in the Words we use, not in people. (In
reality people carry the meaning)
 We have a natural ability to communicate
 Communication is reversible
 Communication always requires complete
understanding
 Communication is simple
Levels of Communication

 INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION – refers to the process of

understanding information within oneself. It is the process of
understanding and sharing meaning within the self. There are many
things we must learn through our own experiences and learn in no other
way. Intrapersonal communication also occurs anytime we evaluate our
attempt to understand the interaction that occurs between us and
anything that communicates a message to us. We are involved in
intrapersonal communication as we receive, attend to, interpret and
analyse, store and recall, sense-making, day-dreaming, decision-making,
inner self talk or respond in some fashion to any message. All messages
we create/receive first occur within us. Hence communication between
two people is far more complex than it appears on the surface.
Intrapersonal communication also includes diverse internal activities
like thinking, problem solving, stress, conflict resolution, planning,
evaluation and relationship development. Intrapersonal communication
may occur without the presence of any other type of communication,
but all the other types of communication cannot occur without it.
Interpersonal
Communication
 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION – Is the personal process of co-
coordinating meaning between at least two people in a situation
that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.
Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication
occurs for a variety of reasons; to solve problems, resolve conflicts,
share information, to improve perception of yourself or to fulfill
social needs.
 Dyadic and Small group communication are two subsets of
interpersonal communication. Social scientists call a two person
interaction a dyad. It includes interviews with an employer or
teacher; talks with a parent, spouse or child. Observations from a
variety of settings ranging from playgrounds, train depots and
shopping malls reveal that most communication is dyadic in nature.
Even communication within larger groups (classrooms, parties and
families) consists of multiple, often shifting dyadic encounters.
Small Group Communication

 SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION – Is the interaction of a small

group of people to achieve an interdependent goal. In small group
communication every person can participate actively with the
other members. Small groups are a common fixture of everyday
life. Your family is a group, so is the athletics team, a collection of
fellow workers or a group of students working on a class project.
Small groups possess characteristics that are not present in a dyad.
For example, two or more members can form a coalition to defend
their position against other members, whereas in a dyad the
members face each other on their own, without support from
others. In a group the majority of members can pressure a minority
to conform, either consciously or unconsciously but in a dyad no
such pressure exists. With their greater size, groups also have the
ability to be more creative than dyads. Finally, communication in
groups is affected strongly by the type of leader who is in a
position of authority.
Public Communication

 PUBLIC COMMUNICATION – Public communication occurs when

a group becomes too large for all members to contribute. One
characteristic of public communication is an unequal amount of
speaking. One or more people are likely to deliver their
remarks to the remaining members who act as an audience.
 This leads to a second characteristic of public settings: limited
verbal feedback. The audience isn’t able to talk back in a two-
way conversation as occurs in a dyad or small group. This
doesn’t mean feedback is totally absent; audiences have a
chance to ask questions and to offer brief comments. Public
speakers usually have a greater chance to plan and structure
their remarks than do communicators in smaller settings. Public
communication most often informs or persuades, but it can also
entertain, introduce, announce, welcome or pay tribute.
Mass Communication

 MASS COMMUNICATION – Consists of messages transmitted to

large, widespread audiences via electronic and print media:
newspapers, magazines, television, radio etc.
 The distinctive feature of this level is that relations between
sender and receiver are para-social. Mediated communication is
any form of communication that employs electronic means.
 Mass communication varies from interpersonal, small group and
public varieties in several ways;
 a) Mass messages are aimed at a large audience without any
personal contact between sender and receivers.
 b) Most of the messages sent via mass communication channels
are developed, or at least financed by large organizations. In this
sense, mass communication is far less personal and more of a
product than the other types examined so far.
Cont..

 c) Mass communication is almost always controlled by

many gatekeepers who determine what messages will
be delivered to consumers, how they will be
constructed and when they will be delivered.
 d) Messages designed for mass communication require a
greater deal of pre-structuring.
 Sponsors, editors, producers, reporters and executives
all have the power to influence mass messages in ways
that don’t affect most other types.
 ADVANTAGE – Multiplier effect
 DISADVANTAGE - little or no feedback
Thank you…