Operating System Support

Overview
OS adalah s/w yang mengendalikan eksekusi dari program di processor dan mengelola processor resources. Jumlah fungsi-fungsi yang dapat dilakukan oleh OS termasuk process scheduling, memory management tergantung pada hardware yang mendukung kapabilitas dari OS Salah satu fungsi yang paling penting dari OS adalah scheduling process / task. OS akan menentukan process mana yang harus berjalan pada saat tertentu. Hardware akan melakukan interrupt yang menyebabkan OS harus membuat new schedule untuk membagi processor resources Fungsi lain yang tidak kalah pentingnya adalah memory management

Objectives and Functions

Convenience
Making the computer easier to use

Efficiency
Allowing better use of computer resources

OS
Program yang mengelola resources, menyediakan service ke programmer dan menjadwalkan eksekusi program lainnya

(schedules execution of other programs)

Menyembunyikan details dari hardware kepada programmer Menyediakan programmer UI untuk menggunakan sistem Menjembatani prorammer dan aplikasi program untuk request fasilitas dan services

Layers and Views of a Computer System

Operating System Services

Program creation
Editors, debugers..etc Not part of OS but accessible through OS

Program execution
Instruction and Data loaded to memory Prepare resources

Access to I/O devices

Simple reads and writes

Controlled access to files System access Error detection and response Accounting
Usage statistics of system resources

O/S as a Resource Manager

Types of Operating System

Interactive
User directly interacts with the O/S through a keyboard / terminal

Batch
User programs are collected together (off line) and submitted to the O/S in a batch by an operator Print-out results of the program execution is returned to the user

Single program (Uni-programming) Multi-programming (Multi-tasking)

An O/S is said to be multiprogramming if it supports the simultaneous execution of more than 1 job

Early Systems
Late 1940s to mid 1950s No Operating System Programs interact directly with hardware Two main problems:
Scheduling Setup time

Simple Batch Systems

Resident Monitor program Users submit jobs to operator Operator batches jobs Monitor controls sequence of events to process batch When one job is finished, control returns to Monitor which reads next job Monitor handles scheduling

Memory Layout for Resident Monitor

Multi-programmed Batch Systems

I/O devices very slow When one program is waiting for I/O, another can use the CPU Maximize processor use

Single Program

Multi-Programming with Two Programs

Multi-Programming with Three Programs

Utilization

Time Sharing Systems

Minimize response time Allow users to interact directly with the computer
i.e. Interactive

Multi-programming allows a number of users to interact with the computer

Scheduling
Key to multi-programming is Scheduling 4 tipe scheduling yang terlibat adalah :
Long term Medium term Short term I/O

Process definition
A program in execution The animated spirit of a program That entity to which a processor assigned

Long Term Scheduling

Determines which programs are submitted for processing
i.e. controls the degree of multi-programming (number of process in memory)

Once submitted, a job (user program) becomes a queue process for the short term scheduler (or it becomes a swapped out job for the medium term scheduler)

Medium Term Scheduling

Part of the swapping function (later) Usually based on the need to manage multiprogramming If no virtual memory, memory management is also an issue

Short Term Scheduler

Dispatcher (correspondent) Membuat keputusan yang baik, job mana yang akan dieksekusi berikutnya
which job actually gets to use the processor in the next time slot

Untuk lebih mengerti.. Perlu mengetahui Konsep dari process state Pada saat suatu proses berjalan, status daripada proses ini akan berubah-ubah. Status inilah yang disebut state.

 5 Macam states
New -> program telah di submit oleh LTS namun belum siap untuk dieksekusi. OS akan meninisialisasikan process tersebut dan moving ke ready state Ready -> Process siap untuk di eksekusi dan menunggu akses ke processor Running -> Process sementara di eksekusi oleh processor Waiting -> Process di suspend (tunda) dari eksekusi menunggu suatu system resource seperti I/O Halted -> Process terminated dan OS akan menghancurkan process tsb

Process States

Process Control Block

Identifier State Priority Program counter Memory pointers Context data I/O status Accounting information

Bilamana scheduler menerima user program / job untuk melakukan eksekusi, maka setiap job akan membuat process control blok yang kosong, dan ditempatkan di new state.

Setelah system mengisi process control blok, maka process tersebut di transfer ke ready state.
Note: Blank PCB -> new state -> fill PCB -> ready state

PCB Diagram

 A process is running in the CPU until

It issues a service call to the O/S (e.g., for I/O service)
Process is suspended until the reques is satisfied

Process causes and interrupt and is suspended External event causes interrupt

Short-term scheduler is invoked to determine which process is serviced next

Key Elements of O/S

Process Scheduling

Introduction Memory Management

To avoid having the CPU idle because all jobs are waiting, one could increase the memory size to hold more jobs Memory is expensive -- costly solution to the problem Programs sizes (process sizes) tend to expand to take up available memory

Swapping
Problem: I/O is so slow compared with CPU that even in multi-programming system, CPU can be idle most of the time Solutions:
Increase main memory
Expensive Leads to larger programs

Swapping

Memory Management
Uni-program
Memory split into two One for Operating System (monitor) One for currently executing program

Multi-program
User part is sub-divided and shared among active processes

What is Swapping?
Long term queue of processes stored on disk Processes swapped in as space becomes available As a process completes it is moved out of main memory If none of the processes in memory are ready (i.e. all I/O blocked)
Swap out a blocked process to intermediate queue Swap in a ready process or a new process But swapping is an I/O process...

Disk Storage

MM OS Completed Jobs

LTQ Disk Storage IQ MM OS

Completed Jobs

LTQ

Partitioning
Splitting memory into sections to allocate to processes (including Operating System) Fixed-sized partitions
May not be equal size Process is fitted into smallest hole that will take it (best fit) Some wasted memory Leads to variable sized partitions

Fixed Partitioning

Variable Sized Partitions (1)

Allocate exactly the required memory to a process This leads to a hole at the end of memory, too small to use
Only one small hole - less waste

When all processes are blocked, swap out a process and bring in another New process may be smaller than swapped out process Another hole

Variable Sized Partitions (2)

Eventually have lots of holes (fragmentation) Solutions:
Coalesce - Join adjacent holes into one large hole Compaction - From time to time go through memory and move all hole into one free block (c.f. disk defragmentation)

Effect of Dynamic Partitioning

Relocation
No guarantee that process will load into the same place in memory Instructions contain addresses
Locations of data Addresses for instructions (branching)

Logical address - relative to beginning of program Physical address - actual location in memory (this time) Automatic conversion using base address

Paging
Split memory into equal sized, small chunks page frames Split programs (processes) into equal sized small chunks - pages Allocate the required number page frames to a process Operating System maintains list of free frames A process does not require contiguous page frames Use page table to keep track

Logical and Physical Addresses - Paging

Virtual Memory
Demand paging
Do not require all pages of a process in memory Bring in pages as required

Page fault
Required page is not in memory Operating System must swap in required page May need to swap out a page to make space Select page to throw out based on recent history

Thrashing
Too many processes in too little memory Operating System spends all its time swapping Little or no real work is done Disk light is on all the time

Solutions
Good page replacement algorithms Reduce number of processes running Fit more memory

Bonus
We do not need all of a process in memory for it to run We can swap in pages as required So - we can now run processes that are bigger than total memory available! Main memory is called real memory User/programmer sees much bigger memory virtual memory

Page Table Structure

Translation Lookaside Buffer

Every virtual memory reference causes two physical memory access
Fetch page table entry Fetch data

Use special cache for page table

TLB

TLB Operation

TLB and Cache Operation

Segmentation
Paging is not (usually) visible to the programmer Segmentation is visible to the programmer Usually different segments allocated to program and data May be a number of program and data segments

Advantages of Segmentation
Simplifies handling of growing data structures Allows programs to be altered and recompiled independently, without re-linking and re-loading Lends itself to sharing among processes Lends itself to protection Some systems combine segmentation with paging

Pentium II
Hardware for segmentation and paging Unsegmented unpaged
virtual address = physical address Low complexity High performance

Unsegmented paged
Memory viewed as paged linear address space Protection and management via paging Berkeley UNIX

Segmented unpaged
Collection of local address spaces Protection to single byte level Translation table needed is on chip when segment is in memory

Segmented paged
Segmentation used to define logical memory partitions subject to access control Paging manages allocation of memory within partitions Unix System V

Pentium II Address Translation Mechanism

Pentium II Segmentation
Each virtual address is 16-bit segment and 32bit offset 2 bits of segment are protection mechanism 14 bits specify segment Unsegmented virtual memory 232 = 4Gbytes Segmented 246=64 terabytes
Can be larger depends on which process is active Half (8K segments of 4Gbytes) is global Half is local and distinct for each process

Pentium II Protection
Protection bits give 4 levels of privilege
0 most protected, 3 least Use of levels software dependent Usually level 3 for applications, level 1 for O/S and level 0 for kernel (level 2 not used) Level 2 may be used for apps that have internal security e.g. database Some instructions only work in level 0

Pentium II Paging
Segmentation may be disabled
In which case linear address space is used

Two level page table lookup

First, page directory
1024 entries max Splits 4G linear memory into 1024 page groups of 4Mbyte Each page table has 1024 entries corresponding to 4Kbyte pages Can use one page directory for all processes, one per process or mixture Page directory for current process always in memory

Use TLB holding 32 page table entries Two page sizes available 4k or 4M

PowerPC Memory Management Hardware 32 bit paging with simple segmentation

64 bit paging with more powerful segmentation

Or, both do block address translation

Map 4 large blocks of instructions & 4 of memory to bypass paging e.g. OS tables or graphics frame buffers

32 bit effective address

12 bit byte selector
=4kbyte pages

16 bit page id
64k pages per segment

4 bits indicate one of 16 segment registers

Segment registers under OS control

PowerPC 32-bit Memory Management Formats

PowerPC 32-bit Address Translation

Required Reading
Stallings chapter 8 Stallings, W. Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles, Prentice Hall 1998 Loads of Web sites on Operating Systems