Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 5e

Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie

Chapter 3
Internetworking

Copyright © 2010, Elsevier Inc. All rights Reserved 1

 Chapter 3
Address Translation (ARP)
 Map IP addresses into physical addresses
 destination host
 next hop router
 Techniques
 encode physical address in host part of IP address
 table-based
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 table of IP to physical address bindings
 broadcast request if IP address not in table
 target machine responds with its physical address
 table entries are discarded if not refreshed
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 Chapter 3
ARP Packet Format

 HardwareType: type of physical network (e.g., Ethernet)

 ProtocolType: type of higher layer protocol (e.g., IP)
 HLEN & PLEN: length of physical and protocol addresses
 Operation: request or response
 Source/Target Physical/Protocol addresses

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 Chapter 3
Host Configurations
 Notes
 Ethernet addresses are configured into network by
manufacturer and they are unique
 IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork
but also must reflect the structure of the internetwork
 Most host Operating Systems provide a way to
manually configure the IP information for the host
 Drawbacks of manual configuration
 A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network
 Configuration process is error-prune
 Automated Configuration Process is required

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 Chapter 3
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

 DHCP server is responsible for providing

configuration information to hosts
 There is at least one DHCP server for an
administrative domain
 DHCP server maintains a pool of available
addresses

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 Chapter 3
DHCP
 Newly booted or
attached host sends
DHCPDISCOVER
message to a special IP
address
(255.255.255.255)
 DHCP relay agent
unicasts the message to
DHCP server and waits
for the response

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 Chapter 3
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Defines a collection of error messages that are sent back
to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to
process an IP datagram successfully
 Destination host unreachable due to link /node failure
 Reassembly process failed
 TTL had reached 0 (so datagrams don't cycle forever)
 IP header checksum failed

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 Chapter 3
Routing
Forwarding versus Routing
– Forwarding:
– to select an output port based on destination address
and routing table
– Routing:
– process by which routing table is built

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 Chapter 3
Routing
• Forwarding table VS Routing table
• Forwarding table
• Used when a packet is being forwarded and so must contain
enough information to accomplish the forwarding function
• A row in the forwarding table contains the mapping from a
network number to an outgoing interface and some MAC
information, such as Ethernet Address of the next hop
 the forwarding table needs to be structured to optimize the

process of looking up an address when forwarding a packet

• Routing table
• Built by the routing algorithm as a precursor to build the
forwarding table
• Generally contains mapping from network numbers to next
hops
• The routing table needs to be optimized for the purpose of
calculating changes in topology

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 Chapter 3
Routing
Assignment

Example rows from (a) routing and (b) forwarding tables

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 Chapter 3
Routing
• Network as a Graph (Graph Theory)

• The basic problem of routing is to find the lowest-cost path

between any two nodes
• Where the cost of a path equals the sum of the costs of all
the edges that make up the path

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 Chapter 3
Routing
• For a simple network, we can calculate all shortest paths and
load them into some nonvolatile storage on each node.
• Such a static approach has several shortcomings
• It does not deal with node or link failures
• It does not consider the addition of new nodes or links
• It implies that edge costs cannot change

• What is the solution?

• Need a distributed and dynamic protocol
• Two main classes of protocols
• Distance Vector
• Link State

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector
 Each node constructs a one dimensional array (a vector)
containing the “distances” (costs) to all other nodes and
distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors
 Starting assumption is that each node knows the cost of
the link to each of its directly connected neighbors

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector

Initial distances stored at each node (global view)

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector

Initial routing table at node A

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector

Final routing table at node A

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector

Final distances stored at each node (global view)

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector
 The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes
called as Bellman-Ford algorithm
 Every T seconds each router sends its table to its
neighbor each router then updates its table based on the
new information (Periodic Update)
 Triggered Update (Link Failure)
 Link Failure Detection
 Continually send control frame and receive acknowledgements
 Do not receive periodic update from other node

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector
• When a node detects a link failure
 F detects that link to G has failed
 F sets distance to G to infinity and sends update to A
 A sets distance to G to infinity since it uses F to reach G
 A receives periodic update from C with 2-hop path to G
 A sets distance to G to 3 and sends update to F
 F decides it can reach G in 4 hops via A

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 Chapter 3
Distance Vector
 Slightly different circumstances can prevent the network from
stabilizing
 Suppose the link from A to E goes down
 In the next round of updates, A advertises a distance of infinity to E, but
B and C advertise a distance of 2 to E
 Depending on the exact timing of events, the following might happen
 Node B, upon hearing that E can be reached in 2 hops from C, concludes
that it can reach E in 3 hops and advertises this to A
 Node A concludes that it can reach E in 4 hops and advertises this to C
 Node C concludes that it can reach E in 5 hops; and so on.
 This cycle stops only when the distances reach some number that is large
enough to be considered infinite
 Count-to-infinity problem

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 Chapter 3
Count-to-infinity Problem
 Use some relatively small number as an approximation of infinity
 For example, the maximum number of hops to get across a certain
network is never going to be more than 16

 One technique to improve the time to stabilize routing is called split

horizon
 When a node sends a routing update to its neighbors, it does not send those
routes it learned from each neighbor back to that neighbor
 For example, if B has the route (E, 2, A) in its table, then it knows it must have
learned this route from A, and so whenever B sends a routing update to A, it does
not include the route (E, 2) in that update

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 Chapter 3
Count-to-infinity Problem
 In a stronger version of split horizon, called split horizon with poison
reverse
 B actually sends that back route to A, but it puts negative information in
the route to ensure that A will not eventually use B to get to E
 For example, B sends the route (E, ∞) to A

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 Chapter 3
Link State Routing
• Same assumptions as of distance-vector
 Each node is assumed to be capable of
finding out the state of the link to its neighbors
(up or down) and the cost of each link.
 we want to provide each node with enough
information to enable it to find the least-cost
path to any destination.

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 Chapter 3
Link State Routing
 the basic idea is for a node to send its link-state
information out on all of its directly connected links; each
node that receives this information then forwards it out
on all of its links.
 Link State Packet (LSP)
 id of the node that created the LSP
 cost of link to each directly connected neighbor
 sequence number (SEQNO)
 time-to-live (TTL) for this packet
 Reliable Flooding
 store most recent LSP from each node
 forward LSP to all nodes but one that sent it
 generate new LSP periodically; increment SEQNO
 start SEQNO at 0 when reboot
 decrement TTL of each stored LSP; discard when TTL=0

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 Chapter 3
Link State
Reliable Flooding

Flooding of link-state packets. (a) LSP arrives at node X; (b) X floods

LSP to A and C; (c) A and C flood LSP to B (but not X); (d) flooding is
complete

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 Chapter 3
Shortest Path Routing
 Dijkstra’s Algorithm - Assume non-negative link weights
 N: set of nodes in the graph
 l((i, j): the non-negative cost associated with the edge between
nodes i, j N and l(i, j) =  if no edge connects i and j
 Let s N be the starting node which executes the algorithm to
find shortest paths to all other nodes in N
 Two variables used by the algorithm
 M: set of nodes incorporated so far by the algorithm
 C(n) : the cost of the path from s to each node n
 The algorithm
M = {s}
For each n in N – {s}
C(n) = l(s, n)
while ( N  M)
M = M  {w} such that C(w) is the minimum
for all w in (N-M)
For each n in (N-M)
C(n) = MIN (C(n), C(w) + l(w, n))

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 Chapter 3
Shortest Path Routing
 In practice, each switch computes its routing table
directly from the LSP’s it has collected using a realization
of Dijkstra’s algorithm called the forward search algorithm
 Specifically each switch maintains two lists, known as
Tentative and Confirmed
 Each of these lists contains a set of entries of the form
(Destination, Cost, NextHop)

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 Chapter 3
Shortest Path Routing
 The algorithm
 Initialize the Confirmed list with an entry for myself; this entry has a cost
of 0
 For the node just added to the Confirmed list in the previous step, call it
node Next, select its LSP
 For each neighbor (Neighbor) of Next, calculate the cost (Cost) to reach
this Neighbor as the sum of the cost from myself to Next and from Next
to Neighbor
 If Neighbor is currently on neither the Confirmed nor the Tentative list, then
add (Neighbor, Cost, Nexthop) to the Tentative list, where Nexthop is the
direction I go to reach Next
 If Neighbor is currently on the Tentative list, and the Cost is less than the
currently listed cost for the Neighbor, then replace the current entry with
(Neighbor, Cost, Nexthop) where Nexthop is the direction I go to reach Next
 If the Tentative list is empty, stop. Otherwise, pick the entry from the
Tentative list with the lowest cost, move it to the Confirmed list, and
return to Step 2.

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 Chapter 3
Shortest Path Routing

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 Chapter 3
Metrics
 Link Costs (No. of hops)
 Drawbacks
 It does not distinguish between links on a latency
basis. Thus, a satellite link with 250-ms latency
looks just as attractive to the routing protocol as a
terrestrial link with 1-ms latency
 It does not distinguish between routes on a
capacity basis, making a 9.6-kbps link look just as
good as a 45-Mbps link.
 it does not distinguish between links based on
their current load, making it impossible to route
around overloaded links.

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 Chapter 3
Summary
 We have looked at some of the issues involved in
building scalable and heterogeneous networks by using
switches and routers to interconnect links and networks.
 To deal with heterogeneous networks, we have
discussed in details the service model of Internetworking
Protocol (IP) which forms the basis of today’s routers.
 We have discussed in details two major classes of
routing algorithms
 Distance Vector
 Link State

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