Classical Mechanics-II (PHYS-3106)

Semester: Spring - 2022

Coupled Oscillators and Normal Modes

Instructor: Dr. GHULAM HASNAIN TARIQ

J. R. Taylor, “Classical Mechanics” Chapter. 11

TL Chao, Classical Mechanics, CRC Press; 2nd Ed. Chapter. 8.

G.R. Fowles & G.L. Cassiday “Analytical Mechanics” 7 th Ed. Chapter. 11

S. Thornton, J. Marion, “Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems” 5 th Ed. Chapter. 12.

PROBLEM’S MANUAL:
https://www.slader.com/textbook/9781891389221-classical-mechanics/
Coupled Oscillators:
• Coupled oscillators are systems of interacting oscillators. These oscillators can transmit
their energy to each other because two oscillators share a common component. Many
physical systems are well approximated by coupled har­monic oscillators.
• A single oscillator has a single natural frequency, at which it will oscillate for ever. We
shall find that two or more coupled oscillators have several natural (or "normal")
frequencies and that the general motion is a combination of vibrations at all the different
natural frequencies.
• Two atoms set in a crystal lattice experience a mutual coupling force and would be
controllable to a similar treatment. Motion of this type can be quite complex if it is
described in ordinary coordinates that describe the geometrical configuration of the
system.
“Two Masses and Three Springs”
Two coupled oscillators consisted on two carts of masses m1 and m2 are attached with a spring 2,
as shown in figure L7.1. The carts move without friction on a horizontal track, between two
fixed walls. Both carts are attached to the fixed walls by the springs labeled 1 and 3, and
connected to each other by spring 2 . These three springs have force constants k1, k2 and k3

respectively. The carts' positions x1 and x2 are measured from their respective equilibrium
positions.

1 2 3

Figure L7.1: Two masses attached with three springs.

• In the absence of the spring 2, the two carts would oscillate independently of each other,
spring 2 "couples" the two oscillators.
• In fact, spring 2 makes it impossible that either cart move without the other moving as
well: For example, if cart 1 is stationary and cart 2 moves, the length of spring 2 will
change, which will produce a changing force on cart 1, causing it to move as well.
• It is easy to find the equations of motion for the two carts, using either Newton’s second
law or Lagrange's equations.
• Using Newton’s 2nd law, suppose the two carts have moved distances x1 and x2 (measured

to the right) from their equilibrium positions. Spring 1 is now stretched by an amount x1

and so exerts a force k1x1 to the left on cart 1. Spring 2 is more complicated since it is

affected by the positions of both carts, it is stretched by the amount (x2 - x1) and exerts a
Thus;

……………. (L7.1)

Right side shows the dependence of force on two variables x1 and x2. We can find the net
force on cart 2 in the same way, and the two equations of motion are;

……………. (L7.2)
Equations L7.2 can be written in following compact matrix form;

𝐌 𝐱
¨ =− 𝐊𝐱 ………………………. (L7.3)

Where;

…… (L7.4)

Our system has 2 elements because the system has 2 degrees of freedom; for a
system with n degrees of freedom it would have n elements.
• The "mass matrix" M is (in this simple case, at least) a diagonal matrix, with the masses
m1 and m2 down the diagonal.
• The "spring-constant matrix" K has nonzero off-diagonal elements, reflecting that the right
sides of the two equations (L7.2) couple x1 and x2.
• The matrix equation (L7.3) is a very natural generalization of the equation of motion of a
single cart on a single spring: With just one degree of freedom, all three matrices x, M, and
K are just (1 x 1) matrices, that is, ordinary numbers.
• The configuration x is the cart's position x, the mass matrix M is the cart’s mass m, and K
is the spring constant k.
• The equation of motion (L7.3) is just the familiar ma= m = - kx.
• Both matrices M and K are symmetric.
The equation of motion (L7.3) could has the solutions in which both carts oscillate
sinusoidally with the same angular frequency ω ; that is,

} …….… (L7.5)

If there is a solution of this form, then there will certainly also be a solution of the same form
but with the cosines replaced by sines:

} …….… (L7.6)
Combining these two solutions (L7.5 , L7.6 ) into a single complex solution;

= [cos

……………...… (L7.7)

Where; =

Similarly;

= cos

……………...… (L7.8)
• The actual motion is given by the two real numbers (L7.5). Nevertheless, for the right
choices of al , a2 , and , the two complex numbers (L7.7) and (L7.8) are solutions of the
equation of motion, and their real parts describe the actual motion of our system.
• The great advantage of the complex numbers is that, as we can see from the right sides of
(L7.7) and (L7.8), both have the same time dependence factor . Let us combine these two
complex solutions into a single (2x1) matrix solution of the form;

…………....… (L7.9)

Where the column a is a constant,

made up of two complex numbers;
Solutions z(t) of the complex form (L7.9), actual solution of the motion x(t) is equal to the
real part of z(t); x(t) = Re z(t) = Re (a )

Substitute this value of x(t) into equation (L7.3), we obtain the equation;
≠0

(K)a = 0 …………....… (L7.10)

This equation is a generalization of the eigenvalue equation, is the eigenvalue. If the
matrix (K - M) has nonzero determinant, then the only solution of (L7.10) is the trivial
solution, because a = 0 corresponds to no motion at all. On the other hand, if;
det (K - M) = 0 …………....… (L7.11)
So equation (L7.10) has nontrivial solution of the equations of motion with our assumed
sinusoidal form (L7.9).
• In the present case, the matrices K and M are (2 x 2) matrices, so the equation (L7.11) is a
quadratic equation for and has (in general) two solutions for . This implies that there are
two frequencies ω at which the carts can oscillate in pure sinusoidal motion as in (L7.9).
• The two frequencies at which our system can oscillate sinusoidally (the so-called normal
frequencies) are determined by the quadratic equation (L7.11) for .
• The details of this equation depend on the values of the three spring constants and the two
masses.
Assignment (Home work);

Classical Mechanics, by J.R. Taylor,

Chapter 11;

Problems; 11.1, 11.2

Reading of Article: 8.1, T. L. Chow “Classical Mechanics”.

Identical springs and equal masses
 Figure L8.1: Two masses
attached with three springs.

Suppose that the two carts of equal masses, m1 = m2 = m, and the three identical springs

with spring constants, k1 = k2 = k3 = k are connected as shown in figure. In this case, the
matrices M and K defined in (L7.4) reduce to;

……………. (L8.1)
The matrix (K) of the generalized eigenvalue equation (L7.10) becomes;

……………. (L8.2)

and its determinant is;

For nontrivial solution this determinant is equal to zero; 0

We get; 𝜔=
𝑘
𝑚 √
=𝜔1 𝜔=
3𝑘
𝑚
=𝜔 2
√ ……………. (L8.3)
 These two normal frequencies (, and ) are the two possible frequencies at which our two
bodies can oscillate in purely sinusoidal motion. Notice that the first one, , is precisely the
frequency of a single mass m on a single spring k.

As we know that the actual motion is given by the column of real numbers;
x(t) = Re z(t) = Re (a )
and a is made up of two fixed numbers,

which must satisfy the eigenvalue equation; (K) a = 0 ……………. (L8.4)

• solving this equation for the vector ‘a’ for each normal frequency, and
• the sinusoidal motion with any one of the normal frequencies is called a normal mode
 The First Normal Mode:
If we choose equal to the first normal frequency, , then the matrix
(K — M) of (L8.2) becomes;

= 0 ……………. (L8.5)

and, the eigenvalue equation (L8.4) becomes;

which is equivalent to these two equations are actually the same

the two equations; equation, and either one implies that

al = a2 = A, say.
 ⸫ z(t) = (a )
The complex column z(t) is therefore;

and the corresponding actual motion is given by the real column;

x(t) = Re z(t)

That is,
……. (L8.6)

The two carts oscillate back and forth with

equal amplitudes and exactly in phase,
so that x1(t) = x2(t), and the middle spring remains at its equilibrium length all the time.
 In the first mode, the two positions oscillate sinusoidally, with equal amplitudes and in
phase. plot the two positions x1 and x2 as functions of t is shown below;

The middle spring is neither stretched nor compressed during the oscillations. This means
that, for the first normal mode, the middle spring is actually irrelevant, and each cart

√
oscillates just as if it were attached to a single spring.
𝑘
This explains why the first normal frequency 𝜔 1= is the same as for a single
𝑚
cart on a single spring.
The Second Normal Mode
The second normal frequency at which system can oscillate sinusoidally is given by (L8.3) as,

𝜔 2=
𝑚√
3𝑘

which, when substituted into (L8.2), gives

……. (L8.7)

Thus, for this normal mode, the eigenvalue equation (K) a = 0

implies that;
which implies that al + a2 = 0, or al = - a2 = A, say. The complex column z(t) is therefore

⸫ z(t) = (a )

and the corresponding actual motion is given by the real column x(t) = Re z(t) or

That is,

…. (L8.7)
In the second normal mode the two carts oscillate with the same amplitude A but exactly out
of phase, as shown in the picture and the graphs below;

The two carts oscillate back and forth

with equal amplitudes but exactly out of
phase, so that x2(t) = -x1(t) at all times.
 The General Solution
We have now found two normal-mode solutions, which we can rewrite as;

where and are the normal frequencies (L8.3). Both of these solutions satisfy the
equation of motion ] for any values of the four real constants A1 , δ1, A2, and δ2 . Because the
equation of motion is linear and homogeneous, the sum of these two solutions is also a
solution:
…. (L8.8)
The motion of each cart is a mixture of the two frequencies, and . Since = the motion
never repeats itself, except in the special case that one of the constants A1 or A2 is zero
(which gives us back one of the normal modes).
In the general solution, both x1(t) and x2(t) oscillate with both of the normal frequencies,
producing a quite complicated nonperiodic motion.
 Normal Coordinates

• In any possible motion of two-cart system, both of the coordinates x1(t) and x2(t)
vary with time. In the normal modes, their time dependence is simple (sinusoidal),
but the two carts are coupled and that one cart cannot move without the other.
• It is possible to introduce alternative, so-called normal coordinates which, have
the convenient property that each can vary independently of the other.
• This statement is true for any system of coupled oscillators.
 L8.6

Putting values of x1 & x2 in 11.22, 11.23

L8.7
simplifications.
Assignment (Home work);

Classical Mechanics; J.R. Taylor,

Chapter; 11

Problems; 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11