HISTORY OF

ARCHITECTURE-
IV
~ Architectural history is the discipline that records.
SIDDHI DESAI – 12
YASH JAIN – 21
SHAILVEE KOLADIYA – 27
AESHA LAKHANI – 29
SAKSHAM MITTAL – 39

2
1.
POSTWAR
MODERNISM

3
Introduction:
◈ Modern architecture is applied to a group of styles which emerged in the first
half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. It was
based upon new technologies of construction, particularly the use of glass,
steel and reinforced concrete; and upon a rejection of the traditional
neoclassical architecture and Beaux-Arts styles that were popular in 19 th ce .

◈ World War II (1939–1945) and its aftermath was a major factor in driving
innovation in building technology. The wartime industrial demands resulted
in shortages of steel and other building materials, leading to the adoption of
new materials, such as aluminum. The war and postwar period brought
greatly expanded use of prefabricated building; largely for the military and
government.
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◈ The unprecedented destruction caused by the war was another factor in
the rise of modern architecture. Large parts of major cities, from Berlin,
Tokyo and Dresden to Rotterdam and east London; all the port cities of
France, particularly Le Havre, Brest, Marseille, Cherbourg had been
destroyed by bombing. The postwar housing shortages in Europe and the
United States led to the design and construction of enormous
government-financed housing projects, usually in run-down center of
American cities, and in the suburbs of Paris and other European cities,
where land was available.

◈ Modern architecture up to the 1960s consisted of rectangular buildings

with straight lines. After the 1960s free flowing curves manifested. One of
the first persons to originate such designs was the Iranian architect,
Dariush Borbor. 5
 The International Style of architecture had appeared in Europe, particularly
in the Bauhaus movement, in the late 1920s. In 1932 it was recognized and
given a name at an Exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York
City organized by architect Philip Johnson and architectural critic Henry-
Russell Hitchcock, between 1937 and 1941, following the rise Hitler and the
Nazis in Germany, most of the leaders of the German Bauhaus movement
found a new home in the United States, and played an important part in the
development of American modern architecture.

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Background and inspiration:
 Modern architecture follows similar characteristics of international style,
though is freer and more flexible with its forms and designs.

 The post-war modernist era also influenced American suburban housing.

Early forms of modern houses included rare examples of the prairie style
for wealthier clients, designed to blend into the prairie landscapes of the
Midwest and inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright and his contemporaries.
The American foursquare and craftsman bungalows, distant cousins to
the Prairie style, gave us more common forms of early modern housing
styles up to and including World War One.

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 Taking cues from earlier craftsman bungalow and cape-cod cottage
forms, post-war modern houses included the California ranch, raised
ranch, split-level, and “sea ranch” after the 1950s. Similar to
International style, these houses really don’t include much “style” at all
— they are designed to look to the future – not to the past – for their
inspiration.

 By the 1970s architects and developers started slipping subtle hints of

past stylistic features into their houses, in part riding the patriotic wave
of the Bicentennial celebrations surrounding 1976. By the 1980s the
postmodern movement was gaining steam, and the anti-style of the
ranch was itself a thing of the past. Architects and builders were moving
away from modern forms, favoring instead a revived interest in past
styles and ornamentation — the postmodern era had emerged.
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 Beliefs and Ideology:
◈ Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt
the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy,
social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were
becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and
political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world.
◈ A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony
concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with
form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and
materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc.
◈ Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the
works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting,
recapitulation, revision and parody. Modernism also rejected the certainty of
Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief.
Characteristics:
 By the beginning of the 20th century, architects also had increasingly
abandoned past styles and conventions in favour of a form of architecture
based on essential functional concerns. They were helped by advances in
building technologies such as the steel frame and the curtain wall. I

 In the period after World War I these tendencies became codified as the
International Style, which utilized simple geometric shapes and unadorned
facades, and which abandoned any use of historical reference; the steel-and-
glass buildings of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier embodied this
style.

 In the mid-to-late 20th century this style manifested itself in clean-lined,

unadorned glass skyscrapers and mass housing projects. 10
 The early buildings of Modernism used glass and steel as the primary
materials to express the boxiness and openness of the style. But in the
building boom that followed WWII, new developments in concrete,
aluminum, synthetics, and, of course, glass, made it possible to enhance the
style.
 Technological influences played a role in updating Modernism as popular
mindset transitioned from the war to the Space Age.

 This affected the forms of buildings, whether commercial or residential.

Although the box was still very popular, other geometrical forms, such as
curves and sharp angles, were used create an updated Modernist style.

 Characteristics — Typically boxy or planar in appearance — No

architectural ornamentation — Large glazed areas or bands of glazing
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1. Le Corbusier
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (6 October
1887 – 27 August 1965), known as Le
Corbusier was a Swiss-French architect,
designer, painter, urban planner, writer,
and one of the pioneers of what is now
regarded as modern architecture. He was
born in Switzerland and became a
French citizen in 1930. His career
spanned five decades, and he designed
buildings in Europe, Japan, India, and
North and South America.

12
 Dedicated to providing better living conditions
for the residents of crowded cities, Le Corbusier
was influential in urban planning, and was a
founding member of the Congrès International
d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM). Le Corbusier
prepared the master plan for the city of
Chandigarh in India, and contributed specific
designs for several buildings there, especially the
government buildings.
 On 17 July 2016, seventeen projects by Le
Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in
Chapelle Notre-Dame-du-Haut,
the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites as The
1950
Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an
Outstanding Contribution to the Modern
Movement . 13
2. Denys Lasdun
Sir Denys Louis Lasdun, (8 September
1914, Kensington, London – 11 January
2001, Fulham, London) was an eminent
English architect. Probably his best-
known work is the Royal National
Theatre, on London's South Bank of the
Thames, which is a Grade II* listed
building and one of the most notable
examples of Brutalist design in the
United Kingdom.

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 Lasdun studied at the Architectural Association
School of Architecture in London and was a
junior in the practice of Wells Coates. Like
other Modernist architects, including Sir Basil
Spence and Peter and Alison Smithson, Lasdun
was much influenced by Le Corbusier and
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, but there was a
gentler, more classical influence, too, from the
likes of Nicholas Hawksmoor. Elements of
Lasdun's most famous style, which combined
cubic towers, bare concrete and jutting foyers, Royal National Theatre , London,
which was compared by some to Frank Lloyd (1967–1976)
Wright, can be found in his first educational
buildings
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3. Gio Ponti
Giovanni "Gio" Ponti (18 November
1891 – 16 September 1979) was an
Italian architect, industrial designer,
furniture designer, artist, teacher, writer
and publisher. During his career, which
spanned six decades, Ponti built more
than a hundred buildings in Italy and in
the rest of the world. He designed a
considerable number of decorative art
and design objects as well as furniture.

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 Thanks to the magazine Domus, which he
founded in 1928 and directed almost all his life,
and thanks to his active participation in
exhibitions such as the Milan Triennial, he was
also an enthusiastic advocate of an Italian-style
art of living and a major player in the renewal of
Italian design after the Second World War. From
1936 to 1961, he taught at the Milan Polytechnic
School and trained several generations of
designers. Ponti also contributed to the creation
in 1954 of one of the most important design The Pirelli Tower in Milan,
awards: the Compasso d'Oro prize. Ponti died on (1958–60)
16 September 1979.
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4. Pier Luigi Nervi
Pier Luigi Nervi (21 June 1891 – 9
January 1979) was an Italian engineer
and architect. He studied at the
University of Bologna graduating in
1913. Nervi taught as a professor of
engineering at Rome University from
1946 to 1961 and is known worldwide as
a structural engineer and architect and
for his innovative use of reinforced
concrete, especially with numerous
notable thin shell structures worldwide.

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 Many of his clients were industrialists, among
them the Ahlström-Gullichsen family. The span
of his career, from the 1920s to the 1970s, is
reflected in the styles of his work, ranging from
Nordic Classicism of the early work, to a
rational International Style Modernism during
the 1930s to a more organic modernist style
from the 1940s onwards.
 Typical for his entire career is a concern for
design as a Gesamtkunstwerk, a total work of
art, in which he – together with his first wife
Aino Aalto – would design the building, and Auditorium of the University of
Technology, (1964)
give special treatment to the interior surfaces,
furniture, lamps and glassware.
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5.Frank Lloyd Wright
 Frank Lloyd Wright was eighty years old in
1947; he had been present at the beginning of
American modernism, and though he refused
to accept that he belonged to any movement,
continued to play a leading role almost to its
end. One of his most original late projects
was the campus of Florida Southern College
in Lakeland, Florida. He designed nine new
buildings in a style that he described as "The
Child of the Sun".

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 He completed several notable projects in the 1940s, including the Johnson
Wax Headquarters and the Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma (1956).
The building is unusual that it is supported by its central core of four
elevator shafts; the rest of the building is cantilevered to this core, like the
branches of a tree.

 In 1943 he was commissioned by the art

collector Solomon R. Guggenheim to design
a museum for his collection of modern art.
his design was entirely original; a bowl-
shaped building with a spiral ramp inside
that led museum visitors on an upward tour
of the art of the 20th century. Solomon r. Guggenheim museum
new york 1956
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6.Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe described his
architecture with the famous saying, "Less is
more". As the director of the school of architecture
of what is now called the Illinois Institute of
Technology from 1939 to 1956, Mies made
Chicago the leading city for American modernism
in the postwar years. He constructed new
buildings for the Institute in modernist style, two
high-rise apartment buildings on Lakeshore Drive
(1948–51), which became models for high-rises
across the country.
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 Other major works included Farnsworth
House in Plano, Illinois (1945–1951), a
simple horizontal glass box that had an
enormous influence on American residential
architecture. The Chicago Convention Center
(1952–54) and Crown Hall at the Illinois
Institute of Technology (1950–56), and The
Seagram Building in New York City (1954–
58) also set a new standard for purity and
Farnsworth House 1945
elegance.
 Based on granite pillars, the smooth glass and steel walls were given a touch
of color using bronze-toned I-beams in the structure. He returned to Germany
in 1962–68 to build the new Nationalgallerie in Berlin. His students and
followers included Philip Johnson, and Eero Saarinen, whose work was
substantially influenced by his ideas. 23
7.Richard Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames
 Influential residential architects in the new
style in the United States included Richard
Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames. The
most celebrated work of the Eames was
Eames House in Pacific Palisades,
California, (1949) Charles Eames in
collaboration with Eero Saarinen.
 It is composed of two structures, an architects residence and his studio,
joined in the form of an L. The house, influenced by Japanese architecture,
is made of translucent and transparent panels organized in simple volumes,
often using natural materials, supported on a steel framework. The frame of
the house was assembled in sixteen hours by five workmen.
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 Richard Neutra continued to build influential
houses in Los Angeles, using the theme of the
simple box. Many of these houses erased the
line distinction between indoor and outdoor
spaces with walls of plate glass. Neutra's
Constance Perkins House in Pasadena,
California (1962) was re-examination of the
modest single-family dwelling. It was built of
inexpensive material–wood, plaster, and glass.
 Neutra scaled the house to the physical dimensions of its owner, a small
woman. It features a reflecting pool which meanders under of the glass walls
of the house. One of Neutra's most unusual buildings was Shepherd's Grove in
Garden Grove, California, which featured an adjoining parking lot where
worshippers could follow the service without leaving their cars.
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8.Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and
Wallace K. Harrison
 Many of the notable modern buildings in the postwar
years were produced by two architectural mega-
agencies, which brought together large teams of
designers for very complex projects. The firm of
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill went under the name of
SOM. Its first big project was Oak Ridge National
Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, the gigantic
government installation that produced plutonium for
the first nuclear weapons. Their style was largely
inspired by the work of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
and their buildings soon had a large place in the New
York skyline 26
 the Manhattan House (1950-51), Lever House
(1951–52) and the Manufacturers Trust
Company Building (1954). Later buildings by
the firm include Beinecke Library at Yale
University (1963), the Willis Tower, formerly
Sears Tower in Chicago (1973) and One World
Trade Center in New York City (2013), which
replaced the building destroyed in the terrorist
Schappacher White huntington USA 2010
attack of 11 September 2001.
 Wallace Harrison played a major part in the modern architectural history of
New York; as the architectural advisor of the Rockefeller Family, he helped
design Rockefeller Center, the major Art Deco architectural project of the 1930s.
Other landmark New York buildings designed by Harrison and his firm included
Metropolitan Opera House, the master plan for Lincoln Center, and John F.
Kennedy International Airport. 27
9.Philip Johnson
 Philip Johnson (1906–2005) was one of the
youngest and last major figures in American
modern architecture. He trained at Harvard with
Walter Gropius, then was director of the
department of architecture and modern design at
the Metropolitan Museum of Art from 1946 to
1954. In 1947, he published a book about Mies
van der Rohe, and in 1953 designed his own
residence, the Glass House in New Canaan,
Connecticut in a style modeled after Mies's
Farnsworth House.
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 Beginning in 1955 he began to go in his
own direction, moving gradually toward
expressionism with designs that
increasingly departed from the
orthodoxies of modern architecture. His
final and decisive break with modern
architecture was the AT&T Building
(later known as the Sony Tower), and
now the 550 Madison Avenue in New
York City, (1979) an essentially The Crystal Cathedral 1980
modernist skyscraper completely
altered by the addition of curved cap at the top of a piece of Chippendale
furniture. This building is generally considered to mark the beginning of
Postmodern architecture in the United States.
29
10.Eero Saarinen
 Eero Saarinen (1910–1961) was the son of Eliel
Saarinen, the most famous Finnish architect of the
Art Nouveau period, who emigrated to the United
States in 1923, when Eero was thirteen. He studied
art and sculpture at the academy where his father
taught, and then at the Académie de la Grande
Chaumière Academy in Paris before studying
architecture at Yale University. His architectural
designs were more like enormous pieces of sculpture
than traditional modern buildings; he broke away
from the elegant boxes inspired by Mies van der
Rohe and used instead sweeping curves and
parabolas, like the wings of birds. 30
 In 1948 he conceived the idea of a monument in
St. Louis, Missouri in the form of a parabolic arch
192 meters high, made of stainless steel (1948).
He then designed the General Motors Technical
Center in Warren, Michigan (1949–55), a glass
modernist box in the style of Mies van der Rohe,
followed by the IBM Research Center in
Yorktown, Virginia (1957–61). His next works
were a major departure in style; he produced a Bell Labs Holmdel Complex, 1962,
particularly striking sculptural design for the Holmdel, New Jersey
Ingalls Rink in New Haven, Connecticut (1956–
59, an ice skiing rink with a parabolic roof
suspended from cables, which served as a preliminary model for next and
most famous work, the TWA Terminal at JFK airport in New York (1956–
1962). 31
 His declared intention was to design a building that was distinctive and
memorable, and one that would capture the excitement of passengers
before a journey. The structure is separated into four white concrete
parabolic vaults, which together resemble a bird on the ground perched for
flight. Each of the four curving roof vaults has two sides attached to
columns in a Y form just outside the structure.

 One of the angles of each shell is lightly raised, and the other is attached
to the center of the structure. The roof is connected with the ground by
curtain walls of glass. All the details inside the building, including the
benches, counters, escalators, and clocks, were designed in the same style.

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11.Louis Kahn
 Louis Kahn (1901–74) was another American
architect who moved away from the Mies van der
Rohe model of the glass box, and other dogmas of the
prevailing international style. He borrowed from a
wide variety of styles, and idioms, including
neoclassicism. He was a professor of architecture at
Yale University from 1947 to 1957, where his students
included Eero Saarinen. From 1957 until his death, he
was a professor of architecture at the University of
Pennsylvania. His work and ideas influenced Philip
Johnson, Minoru Yamasaki, and Edward Durell Stone
as they moved toward a more neoclassical style. he
constructed mainly with concrete and brick, and made
his buildings look monumental and solid. 33
 He drew from a wide variety of different
sources; the towers of Richards Medical
Research Laboratories were inspired by the
architecture of the Renaissance towns he
had seen in Italy as a resident architect at
the American Academy in Rome in 1950.
Notable buildings by Kahn in the United
States include the First Unitarian Church of Sher-e-Bangla Nagar,
Rochester, New York (1962); and the Bangladesh1962-83
Kimball Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas
(1966–72).
 Following the example of Le Corbusier and his design of the government
buildings in Chandigarh, the capital city of the Haryana & Punjab State
of India, Kahn designed the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly
Building) in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–74). 34
12. I. M. Pei
 I. M. Pei (1917–2019) was a major figure in late
modernism and the debut of Post-modern
architecture. He was born in China and educated in
the United States, studying architecture at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While the
architecture school there still trained in the Beaux-
Arts architecture style, Pei discovered the writings of
Le Corbusier, and a two-day visit by Le Corbusier to
the campus in 1935 had a major impact on Pei's
ideas of architecture. In the late 1930s, he moved to
the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where he
studied with Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer and
became deeply involved in Modernism.
35
 After the war he worked on large projects for the New York real estate developer
William Zeckendorf, before breaking away and starting his own firm. One of the
first buildings his own firm designed was the Green Building at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. While the clean modernist facade was admired, the
building developed an unexpected problem; it created a wind tunnel effect, and in
strong winds the doors could not be opened. Pei was forced to construct a tunnel
so visitors could enter the building during high winds.
 Between 1963 and 1967 Pei designed the Mesa Laboratory for the National Center
for Atmospheric Research outside Boulder, Colorado, in an open area at the
foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The project differed from Pei's earlier urban
work; it would rest in an open area in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. His
design was a striking departure from traditional modernism; it looked as if it were
carved out of the side of the mountain. In the late modernist area, art museums
bypassed skyscrapers as the most prestigious architectural projects; they offered
greater possibilities for innovation in form and more visibility.
36
 Pei established himself with his design
for the Herbert F. Johnson Museum of
Art at Cornell University in Ithaca,
New York (1973), which was praised
for its imaginative use of a small
space, and its respect for the
landscape and other buildings around
it. This led to the commission for one
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Cleveland, Ohio (1995)
of the most important museum projects
of the period, the new East Wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington,
completed in 1978, and to another of Pei's most famous projects, the pyramid
at the entrance of Louvre Museum in Paris (1983–89). Each face of the
pyramid is supported by 128 beams of stainless steel, supporting 675 panels of
glass, each 2.9 by 1.9 meters (9 ft 6 in by 6 ft 3 in).
37
13.Fazlur Rahman Khan
 In 1955, employed by the architectural firm Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill (SOM), he began working in Chicago. He
was made a partner in 1966. He worked the rest of his life
side by side with Architect Bruce Graham. Khan introduced
design methods and concepts for efficient use of material in
building architecture. His first building to employ the tube
structure was the Chestnut De-Witt apartment building.

 During the 1960s and 1970s, he became noted for his designs for Chicago's
100-story John Hancock Center, which was the first building to use the
trussed-tube design, and 110-story Sears Tower, since renamed Willis Tower,
the tallest building in the world from 1973 until 1998, which was the first
building to use the framed-tube design. 38
 During the 1960s and 1970s, he became noted for his designs for Chicago's
100-story John Hancock Center, which was the first building to use the
trussed-tube design, and 110-story Sears Tower, since renamed Willis Tower,
the tallest building in the world from 1973 until 1998, which was the first
building to use the framed-tube design.

 Khan's seminal work of developing tall building

structural systems is still used today as the starting
point when considering design options for tall
buildings. Tube structures have since been used in
many skyscrapers, including the construction of the
World Trade Center, Aon Centre, Petronas Towers,
Jin Mao Building, Bank of China Tower and most
other buildings in excess of 40 stories constructed
John Hancock Centre
since the 1960s. in Chicago , 1968. 39
CIAM
 The International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) was founded
in June 1928, at the Chateau de la Sarraz in Switzerland, by a group of 28
European architects organized by Le Corbusier, Hélène de Mandrot (owner
of the castle), and Sigfried Giedion, (the first secretary-general). CIAM was
one of many 20th-century manifestos meant to advance the cause of
architecture as a social art.

 The organization was hugely influential. It was not only engaged in

formalizing the architectural principles of the Modern Movement, but also
saw architecture as an economic and political tool that could be used to
improve the world through the design of buildings and through
urban planning.
40
 As CIAM members travelled worldwide after the war, many of its ideas
spread outside Europe, notably to the USA. The city planning ideas
were adopted in the rebuilding of Europe following World War II,
although by then some CIAM members had their doubts. When
implemented in the postwar period, many of these ideas were
compromised by tight financial constraints, poor understanding of the
concepts, or popular resistance.

 Mart Stam's replanning of postwar Dresden in the CIAM formula was

rejected by its citizens as an "all-out attack on the city." The CIAM
organization disbanded in 1959 as the views of the members diverged.

41
BUILDINGS: -
1. The Convent of La Tourette, France: -
 Built on a square U-shaped plan, to the
north off by the nave of the church, the
convent is directly inspired by Cistercian
models. Implanted on steeply sloping
ground, it finds its “bed”, in the architect’s
words, on the crest of the hill and comes to
terms with the declivity by means of the
pilotis.
 From the path that runs along the ridge of the hill, you accede directly to the
third of the building’s five levels. Above this floor, devoted to study and
seminars (library and workrooms), are levels 1 and 2 exclusively reserved
for monks’ cells. 42
 An accessible terrace, connected to the roof
of the church by a footbridge, is covered with
a thin layer of insulating earth. Levels 4 and
5 below the floor are truncated by the slope
of the land. Level 4, dedicated to the
collective life of the community (refectory,
chapter, atrium), is served by two wide
corridors forming a cross in the courtyard
center. These circulation spaces, known as
“cloisters”, also lead to the church.
 Light functions here as an element in the service of exceptional spatial
innovation. Le Corbusier deploys a whole range of devices to control natural
light, sculpting space and volumes: light cannon, light gun, light ray, loggia,
and undulating glazing, a device invented together with Iannis Xenakis and
used here for the first time. 43
 The lowest level, the fifth one, placed
directly on the ground, is reduced to two
separate building blocks: under the
refectory, the kitchen and a common
room, and under the church, the cellars.
A spiral staircase, wrapped in an
external turret, directly connects the
seminar wing to the level 4 dining hall
and level 5 kitchen.
 The church forms the northern wing, independent of the rest of the convent. It is
in the form of a simple “box” of raw concrete, covered by a roof terrace
accessible from the west wing by a footbridge. Inside reigns the greatest
austerity. A few steps separate the choir from the wooden and concrete stalls.
Three “light cannons” diffuse light coloured by the wall paints (blue-yellow-
red) in the adjacent “ear-shaped” north chapel. 44
Exterior: -
The monastery consists of four perimeter heavy rectangular structures that create a
closed interior space.
The compact rectangle that rests on the edge of the hill houses the church and the
church sacrifice, while the other three wings are raised with pilotis of many
different shapes, accommodating living spaces and all the rest functions of the
monastery. It has been compared by critics to a parking garage.
Interior: -
The monastery was designed to have one hundred bedrooms for apprentices and
teachers, study rooms, one workplace and one entertainment room, a dining room,
a library and a church.
At the lowest level are the dining room and the peristyle of the temple in the form of
a cross, that functions as ramp and leads to the church. The study, work,
entertainment and library halls are placed on the above level, while the monks' cells
are at the highest level.
The monastery’s four wings create an enclosed central space. 45
Patio: -
The open space between the four wings isn’t a typical patio. It is divided into
four parts by the two vertical corridors joining each other.
Forms of different geometry are contained in each of the four parts that are
created: a cylinder in the inside is a helix staircase, a prismatic roof, a
quadrangular pyramid and a series of polygonal apertures on the roof of a
parallelepiped protrusion on church’s wall.

Materials: -
The structural form of the building is reinforced concrete, with undulating
glass surfaces located on three of the four exterior faces, which were designed
by Iannis Xenakis.

46
The Use of light: -

 The gradual path from the natural

landscape to the interior of the
sanctuary, where there is no
iconographic representation rather than
the view of natural light, is at the same
time a continuous removal of the visual
phenomena from "out" to "in". The
complexity of the landscape is reduced
to simple geometric shapes and at the
end to the ultimate light.

47
 Light is a way of experiencing the space, as it moves freely within it luring
the visitor to do the same. In order to control the amount of light that
enters the large public spaces and the long corridors, vertical wavy glass
sheets are used.

48
2. Royal National Theatre, London: -
 The Royal National Theatre in
London, commonly known as the
National Theatre (NT), is one of the
United Kingdom's three most
prominent publicly funded performing
arts venues, alongside the Royal
Shakespeare Company and the Royal
Opera House. Internationally, it is
known as the National Theatre of
Great Britain.
 The style of the National Theatre building was described by Mark Girouard
as "an aesthetic of broken forms" at the time of opening. Architectural
opinion was split at the time of construction.
49
 Even enthusiastic advocates of the Modern Movement such as Sir Nikolaus
Pevsner found the Béton brut concrete both inside and out overbearing. Most
notoriously, Prince Charles described the building in 1988 as "a clever way of
building a nuclear power station in the middle of London without anyone
objecting". Sir John Betjeman, however, a man not noted for his enthusiasm for
brutalist architecture, was effusive in his praise and wrote to Lasdun stating
that he "gasped with delight at the cube of your theatre in the pale blue sky and
a glimpse of St. Paul's to the south of it. It is a lovely work and so good from so
many angles...it has that inevitable and finished look that great work does."

 Denys Lasdun's building for the National Theatre – an "urban landscape" of

interlocking terraces responding to the site at King's Reach on the River
Thames to exploit views of St Paul's Cathedral and Somerset House.

50
 Despite the controversy, the theatre has been a Grade II* listed building
since 1994. The carefully refined balance between horizontal and vertical
elements in Lasdun's building has been contrasted favorably with the
lumpiness of neighboring buildings such as the Hayward Gallery and Queen
Elizabeth Hall.
 It is now in the unusual situation of having appeared simultaneously in the
top ten "most popular" and "most hated" London buildings in opinion
surveys. A recent lighting scheme illuminating the exterior of the building, in
particular the fly towers, has proved very popular, and is one of several
positive artistic responses to the building.
 A key intended viewing axis is from Waterloo Bridge at 45 degrees head on to
the fly tower of the Olivier Theatre (the largest and highest element of the
building) and the steps from ground level. This view is largely obscured now
by mature trees along the riverside walk but it can be seen in a more limited
way at ground level. 51
 The National Theatre's foyers are open to
the public, with a large theatrical
bookshop, restaurants, bars and exhibition
spaces. The terraces and foyers of the
theatre complex have also been used for
ad hoc, short seasonal and experimental
performances and screenings. The
riverside forecourt of the theatre is used
for regular season of open-air
performances in the summer months.
 The Clore Learning Centre is a new dedicated space for learning at the
National Theatre. It offers events and courses for all ages, exploring theatre-
making from playwriting to technical skills, often led by the NT's own artists
and staff. One of its spaces is The Cottesloe Room, so called in recognition of
the original name of the adjacent theatre. 52
 The dressing rooms for all actors are arranged around an internal lightwell
and airshaft and so their windows each face each other. This arrangement
has led to a tradition whereby, on the opening night (known as 'Press Night')
and closing night of any individual play, when called to go to 'beginners'
(opening positions), the actors will go to the window and drum on the glass
with the palms of their hands.

53
3. Auditorium of the University of Technology, Helsinki: -
 The red brick buildings of the Campus refer to the old Finnish industrial
architecture, illustrating the close relationship of the work done in their
buildings with the old industrial activity in the area.

 It dominates the central

area of ​the campus from a
small hill. In the building it
highlights
the auditorium for more
than 1,000 people and has
three floors.

54
Building Sport:
 The architect used brick as the
primary material in the case of the
small room is painted white with
the main wooden structure; while
the larger the structure is made by
armors to support the roof. These
armor mullions create a game
inside the enclosure which shows
the magnificent light treatment on
site.
 Located in Luolamiehentie 7 was for a time the largest structure of its kind
in the country with a span of 45m between wooden beams.
55
Main building :

 The main materials used for

construction are the black granite
walls of dark red brick factory,
although in different areas giving a
treatment to achieve shades of white
brick, also found the structure of
reinforced concrete and copper.
Different wood accents reveal the
nature of the work.

56
 This building that articulates the side
spaces, functions as stepped outside
outdoor theater, an amphitheater facing
the open space. Inside predominates
concrete construction with zenithal
windows that allow natural light and
accompany the rows of windows
following the hemicycles the outdoor
amphitheater maintain an ascending
order.

 Used concrete structure with red brick walls, woodwork extruded steel
and laminated glass.
57
Library :

 The materials used are gray granite

base, red brick, and copper foil to
blend with the whole. Motifs also
uses wood and steel extrusions.
This does not have the traditional
ventilation system used in buildings

58
 Pirelli Tower is a 32-storey, 127 m
skyscraper in Milan, Italy. The base of the building is
1,900 m2, with a length of 75.5 m and a width of
20.5 m. The construction used approximately
30,000 m3 of concrete. The building weighs close to
70,000 tons with a volume of 125,324 m3.
Characterized by a structural skeleton, curtain
wall façades and tapered sides, it was among the first
skyscrapers to abandon the customary block
form. After its completion it was the tallest building in
Italy till 1961.
The architectural historian Hasan-Uddin Khan
praised it as "one of the most elegant tall buildings in
the world" and as one of the "few tall
European buildings statements that added to the vocabulary of the skyscraper". 59
 St. Martin is the name of
a Catholic parish and church in Idstein,
Germany. The present building, designed
by architect Johannes Krahn, was
consecrated in 1965. The earlier church
was too small for the congregation growing
after World War II. After reconstruction, in
a simple shape, a single long nave was
concluded by a semicircle choir around the
altar. On the right side the wall opens to a
side chapel , reminiscent of a transept.
The outer walls are sandstone, visible both inside and outside. Light flows in
from a band of windows under the plain wooden ceiling. The building recalls the
austere style of sacred architecture of the 1950s. The floor is of Jura marble,
the altar, ambo, baptisma font and tabernacle are made of Lahn marble.  60
Sainte Marie de La Tourette, Royal National Theatre, Auditorium of the University
France London of Technology, Helsinki

University Hospital The Fondation Maeght Warszawa Centralna railway 61

Center, Belgium station, Poland
 Crown Hall, Chicago

The Williams Tower, Willis Tower, Chicago MetLife Building, New York 62

Texas
2.
INDUSTRIALIZATI
ON

63
 The Industrial Revolution, began in England about 1760 to sometime between 1820
and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines,
new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use
of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system,
which led to radical changes at every level of civilization throughout the world.
 The growth of heavy industry brought a flood of new building materials such as cast
iron, steel, and glass with which architects and engineers devised structures
previously undreamed of in function, size, and form.
 Major inventions the steam engine: invented by James Watt in 1785, whose
proliferation into newly built machine shop and iron foundries engendered an
appropriate type of building. steam engine leads to invention of steam ship, steam
locomotives.
 Railway-a meaningful symbol of the new age which in turn had consequences for
architecture - stations, bridges, tunnels the steam boat: an important means of
transportation which in turn had consequences for mass migration from across the
globe.
64
Inventions in building material -
• Cast iron, an essentially brittle material, is approximately four
times as resistant to compression as stone.
• Wrought iron, which is forty times as resistant to tension and
bending as stone, is only four times heavier. it can be form and
molded into any shape.
• Glass can be manufactured in larger sizes and volumes.
• Solid structures could be replaced by skeleton structures, making it
possible to erect buildings of almost unrestricted height.
• Buildings could be constructed into any shape and in short time.

65
Reason of Industrialization started -
• Industrial Revolution as, “a widespread replacement of manual
labor by machines that began in Britain in the 18th century.”
• People did not want to do their work manually for the rest of their
lives.
• Somewhere around 75% of the British made their money from
farming. In the winter when they couldn't farm, they worked with
the wool from their sheep to make cloth. This was called the
cottage industry. This was one thing that caused the Industrial
Revolution.

66
Reason of Industrialization started in
England by 1780s –
• The factors are: Geographic factors-As an island separated from,
and yet close to, the European continent, England enjoyed a
geographical situation that was favorable in several ways.
• Political factors-Government was ready to provide conditions in
which trade, industry, banking and farming for profit could flourish.
• The best single condition it provided was laissez-faire -no
government interference with private businesses.
• Economic factors– Internally, the purchasing power of the people
was generally greater than that of other peoples.
67
Effect on Agriculture –
• Farmers that had always done everything by hand were now using
machines in their fields.
• With all the machines not as many farm workers were needed so
they had to move to cities to find work.

Use of Iron in Architecture –

• The Iron Bridge-The Iron Railroad Station.
• The Iron Market Place.
• The Iron Commercial Buildings.
• The Iron Cultural and Religious Buildings
• The Iron Exhibition Buildings. 68
Characteristics –
1. Wide –open spaces: Industrial buildings tend to have open floor
plans and high ceilings.
2. Minimalist aesthetic: Industrial architecture tends to follow the
philosophy of modern architecture by prioritizing functionality
over ornamental flourishes.
3. Exposed materials and utilities: Exposed brick walls concrete
floors and steel beams are commonly found inside industrial
residential spaces. Open ductwork, wiring and plumbing as well.
4. Natural Light: Industrial architecture make efficient use of
natural light via large, metal grid windows or floor-to-ceiling
windows.
69
1. Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Isambard Kingdom Brunel (9 April 1806 – 15
September 1859) was an English civil engineer who is
considered "one of the most ingenious and prolific
figures in engineering history," "one of the 19th-century
engineering giants," and "one of the greatest figures of
the Industrial Revolution, changed the face of the
English landscape with his groundbreaking designs and
ingenious constructions." Brunel built dockyards, the
Great Western Railway (GWR), a series of steamships
including the first propeller-driven transatlantic
steamship, and numerous important bridges and
tunnels. His designs revolutionized public transport and
modern engineering.
70
2. Thomas Telford
Thomas Telford (9 August 1757 – 2 September 1834)
was a Scottish civil engineer. After establishing himself
as an engineer of road and canal projects in Shropshire,
he designed numerous infrastructure projects in his
native Scotland, as well as harbors and tunnels. Such
was his reputation as a prolific designer of highways
and related bridges, he was dubbed The Colossus of
Roads (a pun on the Colossus of Rhodes), and,
reflecting his command of all types of civil engineering
in the early 19th century, he was elected as the first
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, a post he
held for 14 years until his death.

71
3. Abraham Darby
Abraham Darby III (24 April 1750 – 1789) was an
English ironmaster and Quaker. He was the third man
of that name in several generations of an English
Quaker family that played a pivotal role in the
Industrial Revolution. Abraham Darby was born in
Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, in 1750, the eldest son of
Abraham Darby the Younger (1711–1763) by his second
wife, Abiah Maude, and educated at a school in
Worcester kept by a Quaker named James Fell. At age
thirteen, Darby inherited his father's shares in the
family iron-making businesses in the Severn Valley, and
in 1768, aged eighteen, he took over the management of
the Coalbrookdale ironworks. He took various measures
to improve the conditions of his work force. 72
4. John A. Roebling
John Augustus Roebling (June 12, 1806 – July 22,
1869) was a German-born American civil engineer. He
designed and built wire rope suspension bridges, in
particular the Brooklyn Bridge, which has been
designated as a National Historic Landmark and a
National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.
Roebling devised "an equilibrium strength approach, in
which equilibrium is always satisfied but compatibility
of deformations is not enforced." This was essentially
an approximation method like the force method: First,
Roebling computed the dead and live loads, then
divided the load between the cables and the stays.
Roebling added a large safety factor to the divided
loads and then solved for the forces. 73
The Iron Bridges

74
BROOKLYN BRIDGE, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK,
1869-1883

• JOHN AUGUSTUS ROEBLING LENGTH -5,989

FEET DISTANCE OF ROADBED ABOVE
WATER-135 FEET BRIDGE STYLE -
SUSPENSION BRIDGE. TOWER STRUCTURE -
STONE MASONRY 19.
CONCLUSIONS
• STYLE=GOTHIC PIERS, STRUCTURAL
EXPRESSIONIST CABLES AND BRIDGE DECK.
• DATE=1869 TO 1883
• LOCATION=EAST RIVER.
• PARK ROW, MANHATTAN TO ADAMS STREET,
BROOKLYN.
• ARCHITECT=JOHN AUGUSTUS ROEBLING,
COMPLETED BY SON, WASHINGTON
AUGUSTUS ROEBLING 20. 75
CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE, BRISTOL,
ENGLAND 1836-1864

• BRUNEL WAS AN INNOVATIVE GENIUS. HIS

METHODS WERE HIGHLY EXPERIMENTAL
AND DIDN'T ALWAYS WORK, BUT HE HAD A
REPUTATION FOR FINDING CREATIVE
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS THAT HAD
STUMPED ENGINEERS FOR SOLUTIONS. 

• BRUNEL'S DESIGN WAS FOR A SUSPENSION

BRIDGE, STILL A VERY NEW IDEA AT THE
TIME THAT RELIED ON THE LATEST
TECHNIQUES IN STEEL PRODUCTION.

76
• SOME WERE CONCERNED THAT A SUSPENSION BRIDGE OVER A 250-FOOT DEEP
GORGE KNOWN FOR ITS HIGH CROSSWINDS COULD NOT SUPPORT ITS OWN
WEIGHT. MANY BELIEVED IT WOULD TIP OR BUCKLE.

DESIGN

• BRUNEL'S DESIGN WAS FOR A SUSPENSION BRIDGE, STILL A VERY NEW IDEA AT
THE TIME THAT RELIED ON THE LATEST TECHNIQUES IN STEEL PRODUCTION.
SOME WERE CONCERNED THAT A SUSPENSION BRIDGE OVER A 250-FOOT DEEP
GORGE KNOWN FOR ITS HIGH CROSSWINDS COULD NOT SUPPORT ITS OWN
WEIGHT. MANY BELIEVED IT WOULD TIP OR BUCKLE. BRUNEL PERSISTED
HOWEVER, AND CONTINUED WITH HIS DESIGN.

• IN TERMS OF AESTHETICS, BRUNEL ALSO WANTED HIS BRIDGE TO MATCH THE

IMPRESSIVE NATURAL SETTING, AND DECIDED TO MODEL THE PYLONS AFTER
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE (EGYPTIAN STUFF WAS ALL THE RAGE AT
THE TIME). IN HIS ORIGINAL PLANS, THE PYLONS WERE TO BE COVERED IN IRON-
PANEL RELIEFS, AND CAPPED WITH MAGNIFICENT SPHINXES. 77
Construction
• CONSTRUCTION ON THE CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE BEGAN IN 1831. AS THE
PYLONS WERE BUILT, IT QUICKLY BECAME APPARENT THAT BRUNEL'S AMBITION
OUTPACED THE TECHNOLOGY, AND THAT IT WOULD BE TOO DIFFICULT TO GET THE
MASSIVE SPHINXES INTO PLACE.

• HE REDESIGNED THE PYLONS TO BE SIMPLER IN DECORATION, ALTHOUGH THE

BASIC EGYPTIAN-INSPIRED SHAPE WAS MAINTAINED.

• BRUNEL ALSO SEEMS TO HAVE DESIGNED A HONEYCOMB-PATTERNED SYSTEM OF

CHAMBERS IN THE ABUTMENTS, A FEATURE NOT DISCOVERED UNTIL RECENT
RESTORATION WORK. THE DESIGN OF THIS REDUCED WEIGHT AND COST WITHOUT
SACRIFICING STRENGTH, AN IDEA THAT WAS WELL AHEAD OF ITS TIME.

78
Tower Bridge London 17
• TOWER BRIDGE IS A GRADE I
LISTED COMBINED BASCULE AND SUSPENSION
BRIDGE IN LONDON, BUILT BETWEEN 1886 AND
1894, DESIGNED BY HORACE JONES AND
ENGINEERED BY JOHN WOLFE BARRY.
• THE BRIDGE IS 800 FEET (240 M) IN LENGTH
AND CONSISTS OF TWO 213-FOOT
(65 M) BRIDGETOWERS CONNECTED AT THE
UPPER LEVEL BY TWO HORIZONTAL WALKWAYS,
AND A CENTRAL PAIR OF BASCULES THAT CAN
OPEN TO ALLOW SHIPPING.
• ORIGINALLY HYDRAULICALLY POWERED, THE
OPERATING MECHANISM WAS CONVERTED TO
AN ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEM IN 1972.
79
DESIGN
• THE BRIDGE IS 800 FEET (240 M) IN LENGTH WITH TWO TOWERS EACH 213 FEET
(65 M) HIGH, BUILT ON PIERS.
• THE CENTRAL SPAN OF 200 FEET (61 M) BETWEEN THE TOWERS IS SPLIT INTO TWO
EQUAL BASCULES, OR LEAVES, WHICH CAN BE RAISED TO AN ANGLE OF 86
DEGREES TO ALLOW RIVER TRAFFIC TO PASS.
• THE BASCULES, WEIGHING OVER 1,000 TONS EACH, ARE COUNTERBALANCED TO
MINIMISE THE FORCE REQUIRED AND ALLOW RAISING IN FIVE MINUTES.

CONCLUSIONS
• IT WAS OPENED BY EDWARD 7TH WHEN HE WAS PRINCE OF WALES
• 8 YEARS IN CONSTRUCTION, USING 5 MAJOR CONTRACTORS AND OVER 400
LABORER’S.
• COMPLETED AND OPENED IN THE YEAR 1894. TWO PIERS WERE SUNK INTO THE
RIVER BED TO SUPPORT THE WEIGHT OF THE BRIDGE.
• A MASSIVE 11,000 TONS OF STEEL USED FOR THE WALKWAYS AND TOWERS. 
80
THE IRON
RAILROAD STATION
81
 ST. PANCRAS STATION, LONDON,
1864-68
CONCLUSIONS

• IT WAS DESIGNED BY WILLIAM HENRY BARLOW

AND BUILDING WORK STARTED IN 1863.
• THE STATION WHICH HAS A SINGLE SPAN ROOF
OF 243 FEET.
CENTRAL RAILROAD STATION, NEW • LENGTH OF 689 FT.
CASTLE ON TYNE, ENGLAND, 1846-55 • 100 FT ABOVE GROUND.
• FOUR TYPE AF HIGH FRICTION CLAMPS FIXING IS
IT HAS 12 PLATFORMS. USED FOR ROOF 27. 82
THE IRON
MARKET PLACE
83
 CITY MARKET HALL, PARIS

COVERED MARKET , BERLIN 1865- GALLERIA VITTORIO EMANUELE II 84

1868
CONCLUSIONS

• IT WAS ORIGINALLY DESIGNED IN 1861 AND BUILT BY GIUSEPPE MENGONI

BETWEEN 1865 AND 1877.

• THE STREET IS COVERED OVER BY AN ARCHING GLASS AND CAST IRON

ROOF, A POPULAR DESIGN FOR NINETEENTH-CENTURY ARCADES.

• THE CENTRAL OCTAGONAL SPACE IS TOPPED WITH A GLASS DOME

85
THE IRON
COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
86
 MENIER FACTORY, NOISEL- THE BRADBURY BUILDING, LOS
SURMARNE , FRANCE, 1871-1872 ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, 1889-93;
GEORGE H WYMAN 
87
 CONCLUSIONS
• ARCHITECT- HENDRIK
PETRUSBERLAGE

• LOCATION AMSTERDAM, THE

NETHERLANDS.

• DATE 1897 TO 1909

• BUILDING TYPE COMMERCIAL

TRADING ROOM, STOCK EXCHANGE
THE COMMODITIES EXCHANGE,
AMSTERDAM, 1897 TO 1909, • CONSTRUCTIONSYSTEM BRICK
HENDRIK PETRUS BERLAGE BEARING MASONRY WITH IRON
TRUSSES FOR GLAZED ROOF 42
88
THE IRON
CULTURAL BUILDING
89
 Conclusions
• Architect Charles Garnier

• Location Paris, France

• Date 1857 to 1874

• Building Type theatre, opera

house.

• Construction System masonry, cut

stone.
PARIS OPERA, PARIS, CHARLES GARNIER • Style Neo-Baroque 
90
Museum of Natural History, England
91
 CONCLUSIONS
• ARCHITECTURAL STYLE-
VICTORIAN.

• LOCATION LEEDS, WEST

YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND

• COMPLETED 1864

• RENOVATED 1990, 2008

• ARCHITECT - CUTHBERT
BRODERICK
CORN EXCHANGE ,LEADS, 1860-63,
CUTHBERT BRODICK  • GRADE I STRUCTURE
92
3.
SKYSCRAPERS’
SKETCHES
93
Torre Breda, Milan, Italy Eiffel Tower, Paris, France Flatiron building,
(1954) (1887-1889) New York (1902) 94
On The Campus of Florida Southern College in, Lakeland,
FL 33803, United States 95
GLASS HOUSE 96
FRANSWORTH HOUSE 97
THANK YOU

98