Jimma University

Jimma Institute of Technology

Department of Computer Science

Organized By: Fisseha Bayu

Original Lecture Source:
http://www.cs.adfa.edu.au/teaching/studinfo/
ccs3/lectures/index.html
By: Dr Lawrie Brown
Cryptography and Network Security

Contents:
1.Introduction
2.Classical Encryption Techniques
3.Block Ciphers and the Data Encryption Standard
4.Modular Arithmetic and Number Theory
5.Advanced Encryption Standard
6.Public Key Cryptography and RSA
7.Message Authentication and Hash Functions
8.protocols
The art of war teaches us to rely not
on the likelihood of the enemy's
not coming, but on our own
readiness to receive him; not on
the chance of his not attacking,
but rather on the fact that we have
made our position unassailable
(secure).
—The Art of War, Sun Tzu
 Computer Security - Why?

• information is a strategic resource

– a significant portion of budget spent on IT
 Source of Threats
Threats can come from a range of sources
– human error
– discontented employees
– dishonest employees
– outsider access
– act of nature (fire, flood etc)
 Background
• Information Security requirements have
changed in recent times
• traditionally provided by physical and
administrative mechanisms
• computer use requires automated tools to
protect files and other stored information
• use of networks and communications links
requires measures to protect data during
transmission
 Definitions
• Computer Security - generic name for the
collection of tools designed to protect data
and to thwart hackers
• Network Security - measures to protect data
during their transmission
• Internet Security - measures to protect data
during their transmission over a collection of
interconnected networks
 Aspects of Security
– security attack
– security service
– security mechanism
 Security Attack
• any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization
• information security is about how to prevent attacks,
or failing that, to detect attacks on information-based
systems
• often threat and attack used to mean same thing
• have a wide range of attacks
• can focus of generic types of attacks
– passive
– active
Passive Attacks
Active Attacks
 Security Service
– enhance security of data processing systems
and information transfers of an organization
– intended to counter security attacks
– using one or more security mechanisms
– often replicates functions normally
associated with physical documents
have signatures, dates; need protection from disclosure
 Security Services
• Authentication - assurance that the communicating
entity is the one claimed
• Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use
of a resource
• Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
• Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as
sent by an authorized entity
• Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one
of the parties in a communication
• Availability - ensure info delivery
 Security Mechanism
• feature designed to detect, prevent, or
recover from a security attack
• no single mechanism will support all services
required
• however one particular element underlies
many of the security mechanisms in use:
– cryptographic techniques
Model for Network Security
Model for Network Access Security
 Symmetric Encryption
• conventional / private-key / single-key
• sender and recipient share a common key
• all classical encryption algorithms use shared
key
• was only type prior to invention of public-key
in 1970’s
• by far most widely used
 Some Basic Terminology
• plaintext - original message
• ciphertext - coded message
• cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
• decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
• cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
• cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/ methods
of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
• cryptology - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
Symmetric Cipher Model
 Requirements
• two requirements for secure use of symmetric
encryption:
– a strong encryption algorithm
– a secret key known only to sender / receiver
• mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
• assume encryption algorithm is known
• implies a secure channel to distribute key
 Cryptography
• characterize cryptographic system by:
– type of encryption operations used
• substitution / transposition / product
– number of keys used
• single-key or private / two-key or public
– way in which plaintext is processed
• block / stream
 Cryptanalysis
• objective to recover key not just message
• general approaches:
– cryptanalytic attack
– brute-force attack
 Cryptanalytic Attacks
• ciphertext only
– only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical
• known plaintext
– Know plaintext & ciphertext
• chosen plaintext
– select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
• chosen ciphertext
– select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
 More Definitions
• unconditional security
– no matter how much computer power or time is
available, the cipher cannot be broken since the
ciphertext provides insufficient information to
uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext
• computational security
– given limited computing resources (eg time
needed for calculations is greater than age of
universe), the cipher cannot be broken
 Brute Force Search
• always possible to simply try every key
• most basic attack, proportional to key size
• assume either know / recognise plaintext

Key Size (bits) Number of Alternative Time required at 1 Time required at 106
Keys decryption/µs decryptions/µs
32 232 = 4.3  109 231 µs = 35.8 minutes 2.15 milliseconds
56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours
128 2128 = 3.4  1038 2127 µs = 5.4  1024 years 5.4  1018 years

168 2168 = 3.7  1050 2167 µs = 5.9  1036 years 5.9  1030 years

26 characters 26! = 4  1026 2  1026 µs = 6.4  1012 years 6.4  106 years
(permutation)
 Classical Substitution Ciphers
• where letters of plaintext are replaced by
other letters or by numbers or symbols
• or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits,
then substitution involves replacing plaintext
bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns
 Caesar Cipher
• earliest known substitution cipher by Julius
Caesar
• first attested use in military affairs
• replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
DE FG H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A BC

• example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
 Caesar Cipher
• can define transformation as:
a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
DE FGH I J K L MN OP QRS TU VWXY Z A BC

• mathematically give each letter a number

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

• then have Caesar cipher as:

c = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(c) = (c – k) mod (26)
 Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
• only have 26 possible ciphers
– A maps to A,B,..Z
• a brute force search; could simply try each in
turn
• given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
• do need to recognize when have plaintext
• eg. break ciphertext "QHWZRUN VHFXULWB
FODVV"
 Monoalphabetic Cipher
• rather than just shifting the alphabet
– could shuffle the letters arbitrarily
• each plaintext letter maps to a different random
ciphertext letter
• hence key is 26 letters long
Plain: a b c d e f g h I j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Cipher: DKVQ F I B J W PES C X H T M Y AU O L RGZ N

Plaintext: I f we wish to replace letters

Ciphertext: WI RF RWAJ UH YFTSDVF SFUUFYA
 Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
• now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
• with so many keys, might think is secure
• but would be !!!WRONG!!!
• problem is language characteristics
 Language Redundancy and Cryptanalysis
• human languages are redundant
– letters are not equally commonly used
• in English E is by far the most common letter
– followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
– other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
• have tables of single, double & triple letter
frequencies for various languages
English Letter Frequencies
 Use in Cryptanalysis
• key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
do not change relative letter frequencies
• discovered by Arabian scientists in 9th century
• calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
• compare counts/plots against known values
 Example Cryptanalysis
• given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
• count relative letter frequencies (see text)
• guess P & Z are e and t
• guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
• proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
 Playfair Cipher
• not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security
• one approach to improving security was to
encrypt multiple letters
• the Playfair Cipher is an example
• invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but
named after his friend Baron Playfair
 Playfair Key Matrix
• a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
• fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
• fill rest of matrix with other letters
• eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 Encrypting and Decrypting
plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each
with letter to right (wrapping back to start from
end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace
each with the letter below it (again wrapping to
top from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter in
the same row and in the column of the other letter
of the pair
 Security of Playfair Cipher
• security much improved over monoalphabetic
– since have 26 x 26 = 676 digrams
• would need a 676 entry frequency table to analyse
(verses 26 for a monoalphabetic)
• was widely used for many years
– eg. by US & British military in WW1
• it can be broken, given a few hundred letters
– since still has much of plaintext structure
 Polyalphabetic Ciphers
• polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
• improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
• make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to
guess and flatter frequency distribution
• use a key to select which alphabet is used for each
letter of the message
• use each alphabet in turn
• repeat from start after end of key is reached
 Vigenère Cipher
• simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
• effectively multiple caesar ciphers
• key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
• ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
• use each alphabet in turn
• repeat from start after d letters in message
• decryption simply works in reverse
 Example of Vigenère Cipher
• write the plaintext out
• write the keyword repeated above it
• use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
• encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
• eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptIvedeceptI vedeceptIve
plaintext: w e a r e d I s c o v e r e d s a v e y o u r s e l f
ciphertext:Z I C VT WQNGRZGVT WAV ZHCQ YGLMGJ
 Security of Vigenère Ciphers
• have multiple ciphertext letters for each
plaintext letter
• hence letter frequencies are obscured
– but not totally lost
• start with letter frequencies
– see if look monoalphabetic or not
• if not, then need to determine number of
alphabets
 Autokey Cipher
• ideally want a key as long as the message
• Vigenère proposed the autokey cipher
• with keyword is prefixed to message as key
• knowing keyword can recover the first few letters
• but still have frequency characteristics to attack
• eg. given key deceptive
key: deceptIvewearedIscoveredsav
plaintext: w e a r e d I s c o v e r e d s a v e y o u r s e l f
ciphertext: z I c v t wq n g k z e I I g a s x s t s l v v w l a
 One-Time Pad
• if a truly random key as long as the message is used,
the cipher will be secure
– called a One-Time pad
• is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no statistical
relationship to the plaintext
• since for any plaintext and any ciphertext there
exists a key mapping one to other
• can only use the key once though
– problems in generation and safe distribution of key
 Transposition Ciphers
• now consider classical transposition or
permutation ciphers
• these hide the message by rearranging the
letter order
• without altering the actual letters used
• can recognise these since have the same
frequency distribution as the original text
 Rail Fence cipher
• write message letters out diagonally over a number
of rows
• then read off cipher row by row
• eg. meet me after the toga party
– write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
• giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
 Row Transposition Ciphers
• a more complex transposition
• write letters of message out in rows over a specified
number of columns
• then reorder the columns according to some key
before reading off the rows
Example: attack postponed until two am xyz

Key: 3 4 2 1 5 6 7
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
d u n t i l t
w o a m xy z

ciphertext: aptmttnaaodwtsuocoixknlypetz
 Product Ciphers
• ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not
secure because of language characteristics
• hence consider using several ciphers in succession to
make harder, but:
– two substitutions make a more complex substitution
– two transpositions make more complex transposition
– but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new
much harder cipher
• this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
 Rotor Machines
• before modern ciphers, rotor machines were most
common complex ciphers in use
• widely used in WW2
– German Enigma, Allied Hagelin, Japanese Purple
• implemented a very complex, varying substitution
cipher
• used a series of cylinders, each giving one
substitution, which rotated and changed after each
letter was encrypted
• with 3 cylinders have 263=17576 alphabets
Hagelin Rotor Machine
 Steganography
• an alternative to encryption
• hides existence of message
– using only a subset of letters/words in a longer
message marked in some way
– using invisible ink
– hiding in LSB in graphic image or sound file
• has drawbacks
– high overhead to hide relatively few info bits
 Summary
• have considered:
– classical cipher techniques and terminology
– monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
– cryptanalysis using letter frequencies
– Playfair cipher
– polyalphabetic ciphers
– transposition ciphers
– product ciphers and rotor machines
– stenography
 Modern Block Ciphers
• now look at modern block ciphers
• one of the most widely used types of
cryptographic algorithms
• provide secrecy /authentication services
• to illustrate block cipher design principles
– focus on DES (Data Encryption Standard)
 Block vs Stream Ciphers
• block ciphers process messages in blocks, each
of which is then en/decrypted
• like a substitution on very big characters
– 64-bits or more
• stream ciphers process messages a bit or byte
at a time when en/decrypting
• many current ciphers are block ciphers
• broader range of applications
 Block Cipher Principles
• most symmetric block ciphers are based on a Feistel
Cipher Structure
• needed since must be able to decrypt ciphertext to
recover messages efficiently
• block ciphers look like an extremely large substitution
• would need table of 264 entries for a 64-bit block
• instead create from smaller building blocks
• using idea of a product cipher
Ideal Block Cipher
Claude Shannon and Substitution-Permutation
Ciphers
• Claude Shannon introduced idea of substitution-
permutation (S-P) networks in 1949 paper
• form basis of modern block ciphers
• S-P nets are based on the two primitive
cryptographic operations seen before:
– substitution (S-box)
– permutation (P-box)
• provide confusion and diffusion of message and key
 Confusion and Diffusion
• cipher needs to completely obscure statistical
properties of original message
• a one-time pad does this
• more practically Shannon suggested
combining S & P elements to obtain:
• diffusion – dissipates statistical structure of
plaintext over bulk of ciphertext
• confusion – makes relationship between
ciphertext and key as complex as possible
 Feistel Cipher Structure
• Horst Feistel devised the feistel cipher
• partitions input block into two halves
– process through multiple rounds which
– perform a substitution on left data half
– based on round function of right half and subkey
– then have permutation swapping halves
• implements Shannon’s S-P net concept
Feistel Cipher Structure
 Feistel Cipher Design Elements
• block size
• key size
• number of rounds
• subkey generation algorithm
• round function
• fast software en/decryption
• ease of analysis
Feistel Cipher Decryption
 Data Encryption Standard (DES)
• most widely used block cipher in world
• adopted in 1977 by National Bureau of
Standards(NBS) (now NIST)
– as Federal Information Processing Standard 46
(FIPS PUB 46)
• encrypts 64-bit data using 56-bit key
• has widespread use
• has been considerable controversy over its
security
 DES History
• IBM developed Lucifer cipher
– by team led by Feistel in late 60’s
– used 64-bit data blocks with 128-bit key
• then redeveloped as a commercial cipher with
input from NSA and others
• in 1973 NBS issued request for proposals for a
national cipher standard
• IBM submitted their revised Lucifer which was
eventually accepted as the DES
 DES Design Controversy
• although DES standard is public
• was considerable controversy over design
– in choice of 56-bit key (vs Lucifer 128-bit)
– and because design criteria were classified
• subsequent events and public analysis show in
fact design was appropriate
• use of DES has flourished
– especially in financial applications
– still standardised for legacy application use
DES Encryption Overview
 Initial Permutation IP
• first step of the data computation
• IP reorders the input data bits
• even bits to LH half, odd bits to RH half
• quite regular in structure (easy in h/w)
 Initial Permutation (IP)
58 50 42 34 26 18 10 2
60 52 44 36 28 20 12 4
62 54 46 38 30 22 14 6
64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8
57 49 41 33 25 17 9 1
59 51 43 35 27 19 11 3
61 53 45 37 29 21 13 5
63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7
 Inverse Initial Permutation

40 8 48 16 56 24 64 32
39 7 47 15 55 23 63 31
38 6 46 14 54 22 62 30
37 5 45 13 53 21 61 29
36 4 44 12 52 20 60 28
35 3 43 11 51 19 59 27
34 2 42 10 50 18 58 26
33 1 41 9 49 17 57 25
 DES Round Structure
• uses two 32-bit L & R halves
• as for any Feistel cipher can describe as:
Li = Ri–1
Ri = Li–1  F(Ri–1, Ki)
• F takes 32-bit R half and 48-bit subkey:
– expands R to 48-bits using perm E
– adds to sub key using XOR
– passes through 8 S-boxes to get 32-bit result
– finally permutes using 32-bit perm P
 Expansion Permutation (E)

32 1 2 3 4 5
4 5 6 7 8 9
8 9 10 11 12 13
12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21
20 21 22 23 24 25
24 25 26 27 28 29
28 29 30 31 32 1
 Permutation Function (P)

16 7 20 21 29 12 28 17
1 15 23 26 5 18 31 10
2 8 24 14 32 27 3 9
19 13 30 6 22 11 4 25
S- box
 Permuted Choice One (PC-1)

57 49 41 33 25 17 9
1 58 50 42 34 26 18
10 2 59 51 43 35 27
19 11 3 60 52 44 36
63 55 47 39 31 23 15
7 62 54 46 38 30 22
14 6 61 53 45 37 29
21 13 5 28 20 12 4
 Permuted Choice Two (PC-2)

14 17 11 24 1 5 3 28
15 6 21 10 23 19 12 4
26 8 16 7 27 20 13 2
41 52 31 37 47 55 30 40
51 45 33 48 44 49 39 56
34 53 46 42 50 36 29 32
DES Round Structure
 Substitution Boxes S
• have eight S-boxes which map 6 to 4 bits
• each S-box is actually 4 little 4 bit boxes
– outer bits 1 & 6 (row bits) select one row of 4
– inner bits 2-5 (col bits) are substituted
– result is 8 lots of 4 bits, or 32 bits
• row selection depends on both data & key
– feature known as autoclaving (autokeying)
 DES Key Schedule
• forms subkeys used in each round
– initial permutation of the key (PC1) which selects
56-bits in two 28-bit halves
– 16 stages consisting of:
• rotating each half separately either 1 or 2 places
depending on the key rotation schedule K
• selecting 24-bits from each half & permuting them by
PC2 for use in round function F
 DES Decryption
• decrypt must unwind steps of data computation
• with Feistel design, do encryption steps again using
subkeys in reverse order (SK16 … SK1)
– IP undoes final FP step of encryption
– 1st round with SK16 undoes 16th encrypt round
– ….
– 16th round with SK1 undoes 1st encrypt round
– then final FP undoes initial encryption IP
– thus recovering original data value
 Avalanche Effect
• key desirable property of encryption alg
• where a change of one input or key bit results
in changing approx half output bits
• making attempts to “home-in” by guessing
keys impossible
• DES exhibits strong avalanche
 Strength of DES – Key Size
• 56-bit keys have 256 = 7.2 x 1016 values
• brute force search looks hard
• recent advances have shown is possible
– in 1997 on Internet in a few months
– in 1998 on dedicated h/w (EFF) in a few days
• must now consider alternatives to DES
 Strength of DES – Analytic Attacks
• now have several analytic attacks on DES
• these utilise some deep structure of the cipher
– by gathering information about encryptions
– can eventually recover some/all of the sub-key bits
– if necessary then exhaustively search for the rest
• generally these are statistical attacks
• include
– differential cryptanalysis
– linear cryptanalysis
 Differential Cryptanalysis
• one of the most significant recent (public)
advances in cryptanalysis
• known by NSA in 70's cf DES design
• Murphy, Biham & Shamir published in 90’s
• powerful method to analyse block ciphers
• used to analyse most current block ciphers
with varying degrees of success
• DES reasonably resistant to it, cf Lucifer
 Differential Cryptanalysis
• a statistical attack against Feistel ciphers
• uses cipher structure not previously used
• design of S-P networks has output of function
f influenced by both input & key
• hence cannot trace values back through cipher
without knowing value of the key
• differential cryptanalysis compares two
related pairs of encryptions
 Differential Cryptanalysis Compares Pairs of
Encryptions
• with a known difference in the input
• searching for a known difference in output
• when same subkeys are used
 Differential Cryptanalysis
• have some input difference giving some
output difference with probability p
• if find instances of some higher probability
input / output difference pairs occurring
• can infer subkey that was used in round
• then must iterate process over many rounds
(with decreasing probabilities)
 Linear Cryptanalysis
• another recent development
• also a statistical method
• must be iterated over rounds, with decreasing
probabilities
• developed by Matsui et al in early 90's
• based on finding linear approximations
• can attack DES with 243 known plaintexts,
easier but still in practise infeasible
 Block Cipher Design
• basic principles still like Feistel’s in 1970’s
• number of rounds
– more is better, exhaustive search best attack
• function f:
– provides “confusion”, is nonlinear, avalanche
– have issues of how S-boxes are selected
• key schedule
– complex subkey creation, key avalanche
 Summary
• have considered:
– block vs stream ciphers
– Feistel cipher design & structure
– DES
• details
• strength
– Differential & Linear Cryptanalysis
– block cipher design principles
 Modular Arithmetic
• define modulo operator “a mod n” to be
remainder when a is divided by n
• use the term congruence for: a = b mod n
– when divided by n, a & b have same remainder
– eg. 100 = 34 mod 11
• b is called a residue of a mod n
– since with integers can always write: a = qn + b
– usually chose smallest positive remainder as residue
• ie. 0 <= b <= n-1
– process is known as modulo reduction
• eg. -12 mod 7 = -5 mod 7 = 2 mod 7 = 9 mod 7
 Divisors
• say a non-zero number b divides a if for some
m have a=mb (a,b,m all integers)
• that is b divides into a with no remainder
• denote this b|a
• and say that b is a divisor of a
• eg. all of 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 divide 24
 Modular Arithmetic Operations
• is 'clock arithmetic'
• uses a finite number of values, and loops back
from either end
• modular arithmetic is when do addition &
multiplication and modulo reduce answer
• can do reduction at any point, ie
– a+b mod n = [a mod n + b mod n] mod n
 Modular Arithmetic
• can do modular arithmetic with any group of
integers: Zn = {0, 1, … , n-1}
• form a commutative ring for addition
• with a multiplicative identity
• note some peculiarities
– if (a+b)=(a+c) mod n
then b=c mod n
– but if (a.b)=(a.c) mod n
then b=c mod n only if a is relatively prime to n
Modulo 8 Addition Example
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
• a common problem in number theory
• GCD (a,b) of a and b is the largest number that
divides evenly into both a and b
– eg GCD(60,24) = 12
• often want no common factors (except 1) and
hence numbers are relatively prime
– eg GCD(8,15) = 1
– hence 8 & 15 are relatively prime
 Euclidean Algorithm
• an efficient way to find the GCD(a,b)
• uses theorem that:
– GCD(a,b) = GCD(b, a mod b)
• Euclidean Algorithm to compute GCD(a,b) is:
EUCLID(a,b)
1. A = a; B = b
2. if B = 0 return A = gcd(a, b)
3. R = A mod B
4. A = B
5. B = R
6. goto 2
 Example GCD(1970,1066)
1970 = 1 x 1066 + 904 gcd(1066, 904)
1066 = 1 x 904 + 162 gcd(904, 162)
904 = 5 x 162 + 94 gcd(162, 94)
162 = 1 x 94 + 68 gcd(94, 68)
94 = 1 x 68 + 26 gcd(68, 26)
68 = 2 x 26 + 16 gcd(26, 16)
26 = 1 x 16 + 10 gcd(16, 10)
16 = 1 x 10 + 6 gcd(10, 6)
10 = 1 x 6 + 4 gcd(6, 4)
6 = 1 x 4 + 2 gcd(4, 2)
4 = 2 x 2 + 0 gcd(2, 0)
 Prime Numbers
• prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and self
– they cannot be written as a product of other numbers
– note: 1 is prime, but is generally not of interest
• eg. 2,3,5,7 are prime, 4,6,8,9,10 are not
• prime numbers are central to number theory
• list of prime number less than 200 is:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59
61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127
131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191
193 197 199
 Prime Factorisation
• to factor a number n is to write it as a product
of other numbers: n=a x b x c
• note that factoring a number is relatively hard
compared to multiplying the factors together
to generate the number
• the prime factorisation of a number n is when
its written as a product of primes
– eg. 91=7x13 ; 3600=24x32x52
 Relatively Prime Numbers & GCD
• two numbers a, b are relatively prime if have no
common divisors apart from 1
– eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime since factors of 8 are 1,2,4,8
and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only common factor
• conversely can determine the greatest common
divisor by comparing their prime factorizations and
using least powers
– eg. 300=21x31x52 18=21x32 hence
GCD(18,300)=21x31x50=6
 Euler Totient Function ø(n)
• when doing arithmetic modulo n
• complete set of residues is: 0..n-1
• reduced set of residues is those numbers (residues)
which are relatively prime to n
– eg for n=10,
– complete set of residues is {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
– reduced set of residues is {1,3,7,9}
• number of elements in reduced set of residues is
called the Euler Totient Function ø(n)
 Euler Totient Function ø(n)
• to compute ø(n) need to count number of
residues to be excluded
• in general need prime factorization, but
– for p (p prime) ø(p) = p-1
– for p.q (p,q prime) ø(pq) =(p-1)x(q-1)
• eg.
ø(37) = 36
ø(21) = (3–1)x(7–1) = 2x6 = 12
 Euler's Theorem
• a generalisation of Fermat's Theorem
• aø(n) = 1 (mod n)
– for any a,n where gcd(a,n)=1
• eg.
a=3;n=10; ø(10)=4;
hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10
a=2;n=11; ø(11)=10;
hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11