Chapter two

Circuit Laws and Analysis techniques

 OHM’s LAW

 Ohm’ law states that the voltage across

conducting materials is directly proportional to
the current flowing through the material, or
Mathematically

The physical property or ability to resist current of a

material is known as resistance and is represented
by the symbol R. The resistance of any material
with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A
and its length , as shown in the right Figure.

where is known as the resistivity of the material in

ohm-meters.
 Conductance(G)
Another useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known
as conductance and denoted by G:
(a) a variable resistor in general, (b) a potentiometer
Example
A resistor with 560 is connected in a circuit that forces a current of 428 mA to flow through it. Calculate the
voltage across its terminal and the power it is dissipating.
Solution
The voltage across a resistor is specified by Ohm’s law, so

the power dissipated by the resistor is given by:

we check our results using results using the two alternative equations:

R= 560=102.6W As expected.
 NODES, PATHS, LOOPS, AND BRANCHES

 Node:-A point at which two or more elements have

a common/interconnect. every element has a node
at each of its ends.

 Path: If no node was encountered more than once,

then the set of nodes and elements that we have
passed through is defined as a path.

 Loop/ closed path:- If the node at which we started

is the same as the node on which we ended, then the
path is, by definition, a closed path or a loop.

 Branch:- a single path in a network, composed of

one simple element and the node at each end of that
element.
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWs

 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

1. The algebraic sum of the current entering any node(or Closed Boundary) is zero 2. The sum of the
currents entering a node = The sum of the currents leaving that node.  

This law represents a mathematical statement of the fact that charge cannot accumulate at a node. A node
is not a circuit element, and it certainly cannot store, destroy, or generate charge. Hence, the currents
must sum to zero. Mathematically:

[1]

Which is just a shorthand statement for

[2]
OR
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWs …ctd

 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

1. The algebraic sum of the voltages in any loop(or closed path) is zero OR

2. sum of voltage drops= sum of voltage rises(supplied). 

Mathematically:

Which is just a shorthand statement for

Example:
Determine in the circuit shown below

as shown in (b)

Substituting this and collecting common terms yields

 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Voltage Divider Rule(VDR)

Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Generally, the equivalent

resistance of N resistors
connected In parallel is given
by
 Combining

and

Yields

Current Divider Rule(CDR)

We can justify this rule using the following two circuits

Generally:
 Quiz time:
Find for the circuit shown below

Answer: 14.4
Delta Wye Transformations
 Why Delta Wye Transformations?
 The network has the same number of elements as contained in our recent
examples.
 However, we find that nowhere is a resistor in series or parallel with another.
 Therefore, we cannot attack the problem directly using the techniques that we
have learned thus far.
 We can, however, replace one portion of the network with an equivalent circuit,
 This conversion is called the wye-to-delta or delta to wye transformation.
 For the two networks to be equivalent at each corresponding pair of terminals,
it is necessary that the resistance at the corresponding terminals be equal
 e.g. the resistance at terminal a and b with c open-circuited must be the same
for both networks.
 Therefore, if we equate the resistances for each corresponding set of terminals,
we obtain the following equations:
Example:
Convert the delta network in Fig(a) to an equivalent Y network.
Determine the current in right circuit(a).
Basic Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Alternatively
Method 3: Using Matlab
Method 3: Matlab
… to be continued!
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node,
we simply set the voltage at the nonreference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.

CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two

nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both
KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
 Example: Determine each of the Node Voltages

Solution

Solving the above two equations

 Example: Determine each of the Node Voltages
Solution
 Mesh Analysis

 Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces
the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. Recall that a loop is a closed path
with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop
within it.

 Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis
applies KVL to find unknown currents.

 Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only applicable to a circuit
that is planar.

 A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another;
otherwise it is nonplanar.

 A circuit may have crossing branches and still be planar if it can be redrawn such that it has no
crossing branches.
The direction of the mesh current is arbitrary
(clockwise or counterclockwise) and does not affect
the validity of the solution.
Use mesh analysis to find the current in the circuit
 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
CASE 1 : When a current source exists only in one
mesh: we set the value of the current source for the
mesh current with that source .

CASE2: When a current source exists between two

meshes: We create a supermesh by excluding the current
source and any elements connected in series with it.
 Circuit Theorems
 Linearity Property: In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.
We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies
both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
 If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine
the value of a specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or
mesh analysis.

 Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent

source to the variable and then add them up. The latter approach is
known as the superposition.
To be continued …..
be equivalent.
End of Chapter two