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Rural structures in the
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 Geoff rey C. Mrema
Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division, FAO

Lawrence O. Gumbe
University of Nairobi

Hakgamalang J. Chepete
Botswana College of Agriculture

Januarius O. Agu llo

University of Nairobi

Rural structures in the

tropics
d e s i g n a n d d e v e l o p m
e nt

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2011
About CTA

The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperati on (CTA) was
established in 1983 under the Lomé Conventi on between the ACP (African,
Caribbean and Pacific) Group of States and the European Union Member
States. Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EU
Cotonou Agreement. CTA’s tasks are to develop and provide products and
services that improve access to informati on for agricultural and rural
development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to acquire,
process, produce and disseminate informati on in this area.

CTA is fi nanced by the European Union.

CTA
Postbus 380
6700 A J Wageningen
The Netherlands
www.cta.int

Correct citation
FAO. 2011. Rural structures in the tropics. Design and development. Rome.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or
development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific
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not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others
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ISBN 978-92-5-107047-5

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© FAO 2011
 iii

Contents

Preface x CHAPTER 3
Acknowledgements xi Graphical techniques 21
About the authors
Introducti on 21
xii Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) 21
CADD hardware and software 21
CHAPTER 1 CADD design applications 22
Introduction 1
Projections 22
Scope of the textbook 2 Isometric projection 23
Oblique projection 23
Further reading 3 Axonometric 23
projection
Perspective 23
CHAPTER 2
Three-Dimension drawing and modelling
Planning farm and rural structures 5 in CAD D 24
Introducti on 5
Printi ng and plotti ng process 25
What is planning? An overview 5
Selecting a scale for drawings 25
Standard paper sizes used for plotting 25
Forms of planning 6
Title box 26
Regional planning 6
Architectural symbols 26
Urban planning 6
Rural planning 7
Documentati on for a building project 28
Infrastructure planning 7
8 Site plan 28
Environmental planning
8 Plan of external service runs 28
Economic planning and feasibility
8 Foundation plan 28
Economic planning of the farm operation
Plan view 28
An approach to building planning 11 Section 28
Elevation 29
Background information 11
Details 29
Calculations 11
Plan of 29
Analysing the activities 11
electrical 29
Room schedule 13
installatio 29
Communication schedule 13
ns 29
Functional design of the building 13
Plan of water and sanitary installations 29
Finalization of sketching 14
List of drawings 29
Final design 14
Technical specifications 29
Functional and management instructions 30
Farmstead planning 14 Bill of quantities
Zone planning 14 Model buildings
Cost estimate 30
Farmstead planning factors 15 Time schedule
Physical model 30
Computer-generated models 31
Safety and fi re protecti on 15
Fire resistance in materials and construction 15 Review questions 31
Classification of fire hazards 15
Fire separation 15
Further reading 32
Evacuation and fire extinguishers 15
Bushfire 16

Project planning and evaluati on techniques 16 CHAPTER 4

Project planning 16 Geospatial techniques 33
Project evaluation and techniques 16
Introducti on 33
Environmental management 17
Survey of a building site 33
Working project 18 Distances 33
Angles 34
Further reading 19 Vertical alignment 35
Leveling 35
Chain surveying 35
Setting out the 37
building work
iv

Excavation depth control 38 Mixing 74

Volume of earth to be removed 39 Placing and compaction 75
Formwork 76
Modern geospati al technologies 40 Curing concrete 77
Remote sensing 40 Finishes on concrete 78
Global Positioning System (GPS) 40 Reinforced concrete 78
Principle of GPS positioning 41
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 42 Concrete blocks, sand and cement blocks 79
Digital mapping 42 Block manufacturing 79
Decorative and ventilating blocks 79
Review questi ons 43
Mortar 79
Further reading 43 Finishing mortar 81
Plastering and rendering 81

CHAPTER 5 Ferrocement 81
Construction materials 45 Fibre-reinforced concrete 81
Asbestos cement (AC) 82
Introducti on 45 Sisal-fibre-reinforced cement (SFRC) 82
Making corrugated reinforced roofing sheets 83
Wood 45 Walls using the sisal-cement plastering technique 83
Hardwoods versus softwoods 45
Wood characteristics 45 Metals 84
Defects in wood 46 Corrosion 84
Corrosion-inhibiting coatings 84
Poles and ti mber 46
Wooden poles 46 Building hardware 84
Sawing timber 47 Nails 84
Seasoning of timber 48 Screws and bolts 85
Grades and sizes for timber 48 Hinges 86
Strength of wood 49 Locks and 86
latches
Timber preservati on 52 Glass 86
Wood preservatives 52
Plastics 87
Manufactured building boards 53 Thermoplastics 87
Plywood 54 Thermosetting plastics 87
Other manufactured boards 54 Plastics used for seepage protection in dams 87
Plastic components used with dam liners 88
Other wood products 55
Rubber 88
Other organic materials 55
Bamboo 55 Bituminous products 88
Natural fibres 57
Paints 88
Natural stone products 57 Painting 89
Estimation of quantities of paint required 89
Earth as a building material 58 Oil- and resin-based paints 89
Soil classification 58 Water-based paints 89
Soil-testing methods 60
Soil stabilization 61 Review questions 90
Cob 62
Wattle and daub (mud and wattle) 62 Further reading 91
Clay/straw 63
Rammed earth 63
Adobe or sun-dried soil (mud) blocks 63
Stabilized-soil blocks 64 CHAPTER 6
Comparison of masonry units made of various materials 66 Basic mechanics 93
Burnt-clay bricks 66 Basic principles of statics 93
Brickmaking 66 Static equilibrium 93
Force 93
Binders 68 Resolution of a force 94
Lime 68 Loading systems 99
Cement 69 Shear force and bending moment of beams 100
Pozzolana 69 Forces in pin-jointed frames 103

Concrete 70 Mechanics of materials 104

Properties of concrete 70 Direct stress 104
Ingredients 71 Strain 106
Batching 72
 v

Elasticity 106 Pressure exerted by retained material 143

Factor of safety 106
Designing for earthquakes 146
Structural elements and loading 107
Applied loads 107 Review questions 147
Principle of superposition 107
Effects of loading 108 Further reading 147
Structural elements 108

Properties of structural sections 110

CHAPTER 8
Area 110
Centre of gravity or centroid 110 Elements of construction 149
Moment of inertia 110
Section modulus 111 Introducti on 149
Radius of gyration 112
Loads on building components 149
Review questi ons 113
Footi ngs and foundati ons 150
Further reading 113 Soil bearing 151
Site drainage 151
Foundation footings 152
CHAPTER 7 Footing trenches 153
Types of foundation 153
Structural design 115 Foundation materials 154
Foundation 154
Introducti on 115 construction
Structural design process 115 Concrete foundati ons 155
Philosophy of designing 115 Protective elements for foundations 158
Design aids 115
Design codes 116 Walls 160
Types of building wall 161
Design of members in direct tension
and compression 116 Floors 169
Tensile systems 116 Solid or grade floors 171
Short columns 117 Suspended or above-grade floors 172
Floor finishes 173
Design of simple beams 118
Bending stresses 118 Roofs 173
Horizontal shear 119 Types of roof 174
Maximum horizontal shear force in beams 120 Roofing for pitched roofs 179
Deflection of beams 120 Rainwater drainage from roofs 190
Design criteria 121
Bending moments caused by askew loads 122 Doors 191
Universal steel beams 123
General characteristics of doors 191
Continuous beams 124
Types of door 191
Door frames 193
Standard cases of beam loading 124
Simple locks for barn doors 193

Composite beams 124 Windows 195

Built-up timber beams 126
Stairs and ladders 196
Columns 126
Buckling of slender columns 126 Electrical installations 199
Axially loaded timber columns 129
Electricity supply 199
Axially loaded steel columns 130
Earthing and bonding 200
Axially loaded concrete columns 131
Distribution circuits 200
Eccentrically loaded timber and steel columns 131
Artificial lighting 201
Plain and centrally reinforced concrete walls 132
Electrical motors 202
Lightning conductors 202
Trusses 133
Review questions 202
Frames 136
Further reading 203
Connecti ons 138
Timber structure 138
Connections in steel structures 140
CHAPTER 9
Stability 140 Building production 205

Retaining walls 142 Introducti on 205

Wall failure 142
vi

The building producti on process 205 Animal moisture and heat production 228
Climatic factors 228
Methods of construction 205 Effect of climatic factors on livestock performance 230
Traditional buildings 207 Microbiological environment 231
Post-traditional building 208 Other environmental factors 231
System building 208
Catt le housing 232
Prefabricati on 208 Herd profiles 232
On-site prefabrication 208 General housing requirements 232
Off-site prefabrication 208 Calf pens 235
Housing for the small herd Housing 237
Dimensional coordinati on and standardizati on 209 for medium to large herds Milking 237
and milk handling 239
Milking parlour for a medium-size herd 242
Building legislati on 210 Milking parlour 242
Feeding equipment 245
Constructi on costi ng 211 Watering equipment 245
Quantity surveying 211 Feed handling 248
Costing 214 Manure handling 249
Cattle dips 250
Economic feasibility 215 Cattle spray race 252
Building life (depreciation period) 215
Interest 216 Pig housing 253
Repairs and maintenance 216 Management improvements 253
Insurance and taxes 216 Management systems in intensive
Annual cost 216 commercial pig production 254
Cash flow and 217 Determining the number of pens and stalls
repayments required in a pig unit 255
Organizati on for construction of small buildings 217 Space requirement 256
Forms of organization 217 General requirements for pig housing 258
Forms of payment 218 Housing for a small-scale pig unit 258
Housing for the medium-scale pig unit 259
Tendering 218 Housing for the large-scale pig unit 262
The tender procedure 219 Special arrangements for warm climates 264
Methods of tendering 219 Feed troughs and feed storage Watering 265
Evaluation of tenders 219 equipment 265
Manure handling 267
Contracts 219
Poultry housing 267
Specifi cations 220 General housing requirements for chickens 267
General specification 220 Housing systems for layers 268
Planning for continuous production 276
Progress chart 220 Housing for breeders 276
Brooders 276
Housing for pullets and broilers 277
Inspecti on and control 222
Equipment and stores 278
Feeders 279
Safety at building sites 222 Duck housing 281
Geese housing 283
Building maintenance 222 Housing for turkeys 283

Review questi ons 222 Sheep and goat housing 284

Management systems 284
Further reading 223 Housing 284
Parasite control 286

CHAPTER 10 Rabbit housing 287

Management systems 287
Livestock housing 225 Hutches 288
Equipment and store 289
Introducti on 225
Slaughter slabs and slaughterhouses 291
Animal behaviour 225 Gantry hoist 291
Introduction 225 Pig slaughter 292
Behaviour patterns 225 Poultry slaughter 294
Social rank order 226 General recommendations for design and construction 294
Animal behaviour 226
studies 226 Review questions 297
Animal behaviour and
Animal environmental requirements
building design 227 Further reading 297
Heat regulation 227
 vii

CHAPTER 11 Psychrometry 319

Rural buildings 299 Properties of moist air 319
Psychrometric chart 320
Introducti on 299 Air–water-vapour mixture processes 320
Adiabatic mixing of two air streams 322
Space requirements 299
Moisture transmission 323
Family cultural and social requirements 299
Vapour barriers 324
Condensation on surfaces and within walls 324
Special requirements of rural dwellings 300
Heati ng and cooling loads 324
Categories of rural houses 300
The cooling load 324
The heating load 324
Functi on and communicati on schemes 300 Methods of 325
Contemporary designs 301 estimating
External-access type 302 cooling and of heati ng, venti lati on and
Overview
Courtyard type 302 heating loadsoning systems and equipment 325
air-conditi
Corridor type 302
Heating systems 325
Central-room type 302
Air-conditioning systems 325
Ventilation and air-handling systems 325
Functi onal requirements for different Electrical systems 326
rooms and spaces 302
Sleeping 302 Review questions 326
Meeting and rest 304
Taking meals 304 Further reading 326
Preparing and cooking food 304
Storage 305
Washing 306
Reading and writing 307 CHAPTER 13
Entrance 307 Ventilation 329
Improvement of existi ng dwellings 307 Introducti on 329

Contemporary farm dwellings 308 Climati c zones 329

Farm workshop facilities 308 Venti lati on process 329

Determination of ventilation rates 330
Machinery and implement storage 310 Heat balance for determination of maximum
ventilation rate 330
Fuel and chemical storage 311 Moisture balance for determination of minimum
Storage of hazardous products ventilation rate 331
311 Storage of fertilizers and other non-hazardous materials Natural ventilation 332
312
Review questi ons 312 Mechanical venti lati on 334
Fans and blowers 335
Further reading 312
Venti lati on system design: cool climates 337
Air distribution 337
CHAPTER 12 Ventilation controls 338
Ventilation design 339
Fundamentals of heating and cooling 313 example
Cooling 339
Heat terminology 313 Evaporative cooling 339
Refrigeration 340
Heat transfer 313
Conduction 313 Review questions 341
Convection 313
Radiation 314 Further reading 342
Thermal resistance of building components 314
Insulating materials 315
Selecting insulation 315
CHAPTER 14
Surface resistances 315 Greenhouses 343
Thermal resistance of pitched roof spaces 315
Overall heat transfer coefficients 315 Introducti on 343
Location of the greenhouse 343
Rate of overall heat loss or gain from a building 318 Greenhouse design parameters 345
Solar load 318 Calculating greenhouse cooling 348
Example of heat loss from buildings 318 requirements
viii

Heati ng 349 Review questions 385

Methods of heat conservation 349
Further reading 385
Air quality in greenhouses 349

Review questi ons 350 CHAPTER 17

Further reading 350 Rural roads 387
Introducti on 387
Road location 387
CHAPTER 15 Gradients 387
Handling semi-perishable Curves 388
and perishable crops Slopes 388
351
Camber 388
Cross-section of a simple earth track 388
Semi-perishable crops 351
Cross-section of an upgraded earth road 388
Properties 351
Storage requirements for potatoes and other
Erosion of earth roads 389
horticultural crops 351
Storage without buildings 352 Side drains 389
Storage in multipurpose buildings 353 Mitre drains 390
Naturally ventilated stores 353 Diversion banks 390
Larger stores 353 Catchwater 390
Grading and handling facilities 355 drains
Road construction 390
Perishable crops 357 Stumping and clearing 390
Construction of side drains 390
Storage requirements 357
Road maintenance 391
Storage structures for perishables 359
Common cooling methods for produce 360
Transportation of horticultural crops 360 Minor river crossings 391
Refrigerated trailers 360 Splashes and drifts 391
Open vehicles 360 Embanked drifts 392
Culverts 393
Review questi ons 361 Simple bridges 393

Further reading 361 Vehicle access to farmsteads 395

Vehicle dimensions 396
Planning space for vehicles in farm drives and courtyards 396

CHAPTER 16 Review questions 397

Grain crop drying, handling
and storage 363 Further reading 397

Introducti on 363
CHAPTER 18
Grain drying 363
External facilities 399
Properties of grains 363
Requirements for safe storage 363 Fencing 399
Drying theory 364
Security 399
Drying systems 366
Improved livestock management 399
Natural drying 367
Artificial drying 368
Drying problems
Types of fences 399
374
Instruments 375 Wire fences 400
Fencing posts 400
Grain storage 375 Plastic poles 401
Wire fence construction 401
Parameters 375
Other types of fence 403
Solid-wall bins and silos for bulk storage 376
Improved traditional bins 376
Fencing accessories 404
Bag storage 378
Insect control 380 Wire gates 404
Rodent and 382 Pole-and-chain gate 404
bird control in 383 Field gates 404
stores Stiles 404
Grain-handling equipment
Storage 384 Person-pass 404
management elevators Cattle grid 405
Belt-and-bucket 384
, hygiene and conveyors) Wheel 406
Auger (screw 384
safety splashes
Flat-belt conveyors 384
Animal-handling facilities 406
Chain-and-slat conveyors 384
Sack elevators 384 Main yard 407
Dumping pits 384 Cattle races and crushes 407
 ix

Loading ramps 408 CHAPTER 20

Sorting alley 409
Sales yard 409
Rural energy 447

Review questi ons 411 Introducti on 447

Further reading 411 Energy sources 447

Rural energy choices 447
Rural energy supply routes 448

CHAPTER 19 Biomass energy 448

Water supply and sanitation 413
Electricity 448
Water requirements: quanti ty and quality 413 Rural electrification 449
Quantity for domestic use 413
Quantity for livestock 413 Fossil fuels 449
Quality of water 413
Hydroelectric power 450
Water storage 414 Small hydro and micro hydropower 450
Catchment areas 414
Roof catchments 414 Cogenerati on from agricultural industry 450
Partial run-off catchments 415
Storage requirements 415 Solar energy 450
Selection of tank size 415
Solar flux 451
Calculation of tank and 417
Application of solar energy 451
reservoir volumes
Solar collectors 452
Sand dams 419 Photovoltaic cells 453
Development of sand dams 419
Structural design criteria 420 Biogas 454
Methods for abstracting water from sand dams 420
Biogas digesters 455
Quality status of water from sand dams 420
Wind power 456
Rock catchment dams 421
Power content of wind 456
Wind turbine power 456
Wells 421 Analysis of wind regime 456
Location of well site 421 Wind turbine topologies 458
Types of well casing 421 Generation of electrical 458
Lift for wells 422 energy from wind
Hybrid power systems
turbines 459
Pumps 423
Hand pumps 423 Energy effi cient rural buildings 460
Power-driven pumps 423
Choosing a pump 425
Energy audits 460
Pump storage tanks 426
Pipe flow 427
Water-system 428 Energy economics 460
problem 429
Water system design Review questions 461
Water treatment
features 430
Boiling 430 Further reading 461
Chlorination 430
Water 431
treatment by APPENDICES
Open channel fl ow
solar 431
disinfection I. SI base units
(SODIS)
Rural sanitati on 433 463
Wastewater treatment and sanitation 434
Pit latrines 435 II. Conversion tables
Aqua privies 437 465
Septic tanks 438
III. Greek alphabet
Waste management 439
467
Sources of waste 439
Waste collection 440
Waste storage 441
IV. List of symbols
Transportation of waste 441
VI. Number
469 of pens and stalls
Waste treatment 441 required in breeding pig units
V. of various
Design sizesand charts
tables 481
Review questi ons 444 471

Further reading 445 Index 483

x

Prefac
e

There is a growing awareness of the need for better rural structures and services in many developing countries. For
many years, rural buildings and structures in numerous countries have been built either traditionally with few
improvements, or in an inadequate and often overly expensive way, guided by people with insufficient knowledge of
the special technical, biological and socio-economic problems involved.
Rural buildings and structures have become an important part of integrated rural development programmes. As a
large proportion of the food grain produced in Africa is stored on-farm, it is very important to develop effective
storage methods and structures, especially for the modern, high-yielding grain varieties being adopted by farmers,
which are more susceptible to pests than traditional types.
Improved management and breeding programmes to increase livestock production have also created a need for
more appropriate animal housing.
The subject of rural structures and services needs to be included at all levels of the agricultural education system
to assist the rural population still further in raising their standard of living. Specialists in rural structures and services
need to have a thorough knowledge of farming systems, crop and livestock production systems and climate factors, as
well as a genuine understanding of rural life and the farmer’s social and economic situation. They should also be
familiar with the full range of building materials and types of construction, from traditional indigenous to
industrially produced, as they apply to rural structures. They must be able to select appropriate installations and
equipment for rural buildings. This knowledge will enable them to produce specifications, in cooperation with the
farmer, for functional building designs that provide a good environment and durable construction, thereby
contributing to efficient and economically sound farm operations. Further important tasks for specialists in rural
structures and services are interpreting and explaining the drawings and technical documentation to farmers, as well
as supervising the construction work.
However, they should be aware of the need to consult other specialists in related fields where necessary.
This book is an effort by FAO to compile an up-to-date, comprehensive text on rural structures and services in
the tropics, focusing on structures for small- to medium-scale farms and, to some extent, village-scale agricultural
infrastructure. The earlier edition, entitled Farm structures in tropical climates. A textbook for structural engineering
and design, was published in 1986, and was based on material developed as part of the FAO/SIDA Cooperative
Programme: Rural Structures in East and South-East Africa. The programme was established to help member
countries to develop functional, low-cost rural structures using locally sourced construction materials and skills
wherever possible.
For over two decades, the earlier edition has been used as a standard textbook for teaching undergraduate and
postgraduate courses on rural structures and services in universities throughout sub-Saharan Africa. As part of its
normative programme on rural infrastructure development, the FAO Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries
Division (AGS) commissioned a team of three professional engineers who participated in teaching courses on rural
structures and services to review and rewrite the earlier edition, whilst examining the socio-economic and
technological developments that have taken place over the past 25 years. This team, which worked during the period
2010–2011 under the direct supervision of former AGS Director, Professor Geoffrey C. Mrema, comprised
Professor Lawrence O. Gumbe and lecturer Januarius O. Agullo from the University of Nairobi, Kenya, and Dr
Hakgamalang J. Chepete from Botswana College of Agriculture.
We trust that this second edition will help to improve teaching – at all educational levels – on the subject of rural
buildings in developing countries of the tropics and that it will assist professionals currently engaged in providing
technical advice on rural structures and services, from either agricultural extension departments or non-
governmental rural development organizations.
We also trust that this book will provide technical guidance in the context of disaster recovery and
rehabilitation, for rebuilding the sound rural structures and related services that are key to development and
economic sustainability. While this book is intended primarily for teaching university- and college-level
agricultural engineering students about rural structures and services, it is our hope that resources will be made
available to produce textbooks based on this material for teaching at other educational levels. Although parts of the
background material relate specifically to East and Southeast Africa, the book’s principles apply to the whole of
tropical Africa, Latin America and South
Asia because, while building traditions may vary, the available materials are similar.