Logic & critical thinking( COURSE CODE: PHIL 101)deals about

chapters in the course

1. Basic concepts of philosophy, the meaning & definition of philosophy, the core branches
of philosophy, and the importance of learning philosophy.
2. The basic concepts of logic: the definition and components of arguments, the techniques of
recognizing arguments, types of arguments, and evaluation of arguments.
3. the relationship between logic and language. It discusses the cognitive and emotive meaning of
words, the intentional and extensional meaning of terms, the types and purposes of definitions, and
the intensional and extensional definitional techniques, from a philosophical point of view.
4. The meaning &definition of critical thinking, the principles of critical thinking, the factors
that affect critical thinking, & the standards of good arguments),
5. the various forms of logical errors in arguments, which are commonly known as ‗fallacies‘, with a
special emphasis on the categories of informal fallacies. The components, attributes and
representations of categorical propositions are discussed in the last chapter of the module
 . It includes evaluation of the methods by which we
form beliefs, weigh evidence, assess hypotheses and arguments, and analyze reasoning. Logic is
concerned with the study of arguments, and it seeks to establish the conditions under which an argument
may be considered as acceptable or good.

the course deals …

 It is a high-level thought course in the discipline of

• philosophy.
 It is a philosophical inquiry that takes argumentation & reasoning as
its basic objects of investigation & attempts to introduce the
fundamental concepts of logic and methods of logical
argumentation, reasoning & critical thinking
 Con…

 It includes evaluation of the methods by which we form beliefs, consider

evidence, assess theories & arguments, & analyze reasoning.
 Logic is concerned with the study of arguments,& it seeks an argument
may be considered as acceptable or good.
 It includes the development of standard methods & principles of
arguments.
 Critical thinking
 It is an exercise, a habit, a manner of perception & reasoning that has
principles of logic as its fulcrum, & dynamically involves various
reasoning skills that human approach to issues and events of life.
 Critical thinking means correct thinking in the examination of
relevant & reliable knowledge about the world.
 critical thinking is the reasonable, reflective, responsible, & skillful
thinking that focuses on deciding what to believe or do.
 Con…
 To think critically is to examine ideas, evaluate them against what you
already know & make decisions about their difference.
 A person who thinks critically can ask appropriate questions, gather
relevant information, efficiently & creatively sort through this
information, reason logically from this information, & come to reliable
& trustworthy
• conclusions about the world that enable one to live & act successfully in it
 Con…
• When you think critically, you consider up all sides of an argument
& evaluate its validity, strengths & weaknesses. Thus, critical
thinking skills demand actively seeking all sides of an argument:
• evaluating the soundness of the privileges asserted & the evidence used to
support the truths.
 Con…
 Therefore, this course is designed help students to develop not only the ability to
construct reliable & logically defendable arguments of their own & rationally
evaluate others, but also the abilities & skills of critical thinking.
 All education transmitting two different things to students: (1) the subject matter or
discipline content of the course ("what to think"), and (2) the correct way to
understand and evaluate this subject matter ("how to think").
 one may do an excellent job of transmitting the content of his or her respective
academic disciplines, but he or she often fail to teach students how to think
effectively about this subject matter,
 primary aim of this course

 to teach students essential skills of analyzing, evaluating, &

constructing arguments help to sharpen their ability , skills in
thinking writing, and better prepare them to succeed in the world.
 Con…
 we develop our own arguments, form beliefs, balance evidence,
assess hypotheses & arguments, & analyze reasoning will help you
rationally evaluate the reliability of statements & arguments you
encounter in media, in everyday conversation, classroom.
 You will also learn to become aware of errors in reasoning & judgment,
which we all occasionally commit. Finally, you will learn to develop
your own arguments with clarity & precision.
 CHAPTER ONE
Meaning and Nature of Philosophy
Logic is often treated simultaneously as a field of study and as an
instrument.
As a field of study, it is a branch of philosophy that deals with the
study of arguments, the principles and methods of right reasoning.
As an instrument, it is something, which we can use to formulate our
own rational(balanced) arguments and critically evaluate the soundness
of others‘ arguments.
Before logic itself has become a field of study, philosophers have been
using it as a basic tool to investigate issues that won their philosophical
attention, such as, reality, knowledge, value, etc.
 Activity # 1

• How can you define philosophy?

 philosophy
• philosophy has are not the specific subject matters, but issues,
which are universal in nature.
• The term philosophy itself comes from the Greek philosophia, which
means love of wisdom. In that sense, wisdom is the active use of
intelligence, not something passive that a person simply possesses.
 philosophy
• The term philosophy cannot be defined precisely because the subject is so complex
and so controversial.
• Different philosophers have different views of the nature, methods, and range of
philosophy .
• giving a clear-cut definition of philosophy is difficult.
• It may be easy to define other disciplines, such as, chemistry, physics, geography, etc.
in terms of a subject matter. However, it is difficult to do the same with philosophy,
because philosophy has no a specific subject matter to primarily deal with.
• Philosophy deals primarily with issues. What contents
 Philosophy
 Because of its universal nature, it is difficult to define in terms of a specific subject
matter. However,
 Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and
language.
 Philosophy
• It is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of existence and reality. It tries to
discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what is of basic value and
importance in life.
• It also examines the relationships between humanity and nature and between the
individual and society . Philosophy arises out of wonder , curiosity , and the desire
to know and understand.
• It is a form of inquiry – a process of analysis, criticism, interpretation, and
speculation.
 fundamental questions of philosophy
• It is a rational and critical enterprise that tries to answer fundamental questions through an
intensive application of reason.
A science that studies being in their ultimate causes reasons and prenciples through the aid of human reason
alone at Bing and Bings--- All things that exist material or immaterial eg. Stone, plants car, people air
water the nations of GOD,SOUL,SPIRIT all of those are Things.
All philosophy needs reasons
 Meaning and Nature of Philosophy

 we can define it etymologically as ‗love of wisdom‘. It is as a searching of

wisdom,
 to the development of critical habits,
 continuous searching for truth, and
 the questioning of the apparent(seeming real).
However, to understand philosophy, it is better to read different thoughts of philosophers,
consciously see its (salient) relevant features by yourself, participate in it, and do it.
 Philosophy Con…
• Philosophy is not as mysterious as it is often thought to be. it is not
remote from our various problems. It is consistently agreed that the best way to
learn and understand philosophy is to philosophize; i.e., to be confronted with
philosophical questions, to use philosophical language,
• to become accustomed with differing philosophical positions and maneuvers
(exercise), read about the philosophers thought, and to handle with the
issues for oneself.
 Con…
• Socrates once stated that
• Philosophy is “Wonder which is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy
begins in wonder”.
• It is true that most of us may not have a clear knowledge about the history,
nature, language, and issues of philosophy. But, we all think and reflect in our own
way about issues that matter us most.
• We all have touched and moved by the feelings of wonder from which all philosophy
derives. Thus, we all participate, more or less, in philosophical issues, even though
thinking alone cannot make us philosophers.
 Con…
 Etymologically, the word philosophy comes from two Greek words:
philo & sophia, which mean love &wisdom, respectively. Thus, the literal
definition of philosophy is “love of wisdom”.
 Anyone who raises questions, such as
 Does God exists?
 What is reality?
 What is the ultimate source of Being?
 What is knowledge?
 What does it mean to know?
 How do we come to know?
 What is value?, and the like, is really showing a curiosity that can be
described as a vital concern for becoming wise about the phenomena of the
world and the human experiences.
 Con…
• Therefore, seeking wisdom is among the various essences of
philosophy that it has got from its etymological definition. However,
this is not sufficient by itself to understand philosophy, for not
all wisdoms are philosophy.
 Activity
 what do you think is the wisdom that philosophers seek?
 wisdom that philosophers seek

 It is not technical skills of professionals. Someone may be encyclopedic, & thus

seemingly intelligent, but he may be foolish to understanding the meaning &
significance of what he knows.
 Socrates
According to Socrates, wisdom consists of a
critical habit and carefully watch about all things and
 respect for truth, whatever its form, and wherever its place. Based on the Socratic
wisdom, is, thus,
 the development of critical habits,
 the continuous search for truth, and
 the questioning of the apparent(actual)
 Vincent Barry Con…
• stated, is “an active imaginative process of formulating proper questions and
resolving them by accurate, persistent (continuing) analysis”.
Accordingly, that Philosophy has a constructive side meaning formulate
rationally defensible answers concerning the nature of reality, the nature of
value, and the nature of knowledge and truth.
• At the same time, its critical side is manifested when it deals with giving a
rational critic, analysis, clarification, and evaluation of answers given to basic
• metaphysical,
• epistemological, and
• axiological questions.
 Karl Jaspers
• Questions are more important than answers because answers themselves
will in turn become questions.
 Con…
• philosophy is an activity. It is not something that can be easily mastered or
learned in schools.
• A philosopher is a great philosopher, not because he mastered philosophy, but
because he did it. It is not his theory, but his extraordinary ability to critically
think, to conceptualize, to analyze, to compare, to evaluate, and to
understand- i.e., to philosophize- that makes him so.
• Of course, the product of philosophizing is philosophy as a product. However,
what makes someone a great philosopher is not the produced philosophy, but
his/her outstanding ability to philosophize.
general features of philosophy can be summarized as follows:

1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which
are often held uncritically.
meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or ”having” a philosophy.
Usually when a person says ―”my philosophy is,” he or she is referring to
an informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed.
 Philosophy

• 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most

deeply held conceptions and beliefs.

• This is the formal sense of ”doing” philosophy. These two senses of

philosophy-’’having’’ and doing’’- cannot be treated entirely independent of each
other, if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could
not do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense. However, having a philosophy
is not sufficient for doing philosophy.
 Con…
• A genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded
and tolerant- willing to look at all sides of an issue without prejudice.
• To philosophize is not merely to read and know philosophy; there are skills
of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of analysis to be
employed, and a body of material to be appropriated such that we become
able to think philosophically.
 3) Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.

• Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human
experience into some kind of consistent worldview.
• Philosophers wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of the scientist or the
businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view of someone cognizant of
life as a totality.
• Although there are difficulties and dangers in setting forth any worldview,
there also are dangers in confining attention to fragments of human experience.
 3. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the
clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.
• In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have
sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language.
• Some philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this
is the only legitimate function of philosophy. Such persons consider philosophy
a specialized field serving the sciences and aiding in the clarification of
language rather than a broad field reflecting on all of life‘s experiences..
• Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human
existence.
• Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past
have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the
majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been
answered only tentatively, and
 5) philosophers always have required answers.

• many problems remain unsolved. questions ―What is truth?‖

and ―What is the distinction between right and wrong?‖
 Con…

• the great philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine,

Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel,
Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, Whitehead, and others. Without
these people and their thoughts, philosophy would not have the rich
content it has today. Even though we may be unconscious of the fact,
we are constantly influenced by ideas that have come down to us in the
traditions of society.
 Core Fields of Philosophy
Lesson 3: Metaphysics
• The term metaphysics is derived from the Greek words
“meta” means (―beyond‖, ―upon‖ or ―after‖) and
physika, means (―physics‖).
• Literally, it refers ‗those things after the physics.‘
• The content of philosophy is better seen as asking the
right questions rather than providing the correct answers.
• philosophy is the study of questions.
 Core Fields of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics
i) Cosmological Aspect
ii) Theological Aspect
iii) Anthropological Aspect
iv) Ontological Aspect:
2. Epistemology
1. empiricism
2. Rationalism
5. Intuition
6. Revelation
7. Authoritative
3. Axiology
4. I 1. Meta-ethics 2. normative ethics, and 3. applied ethics II. Aesthetics III. Social/Political
Philosophy
4. Logic
 metaphysics Con…
• Van Cleve Morris has noted that the bottom of the matter is asking the
―right‖ questions.
• people really want answered and that will make a difference in
how they live and work.
• Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature
of reality or existence.
• It deal with issues of reality, God, freedom, soul/immortality, the mind-
body problem, form and substance relationship, cause and effect
relationship, and other related issues.
• Metaphysicians seek a complex foundation of reality or ‗first principles‘
from which absolute knowledge or truth can be induced and deduced.
 questions that Metaphysics primarily deals with:

• What is reality?
• What is the ultimately real?
• What is the nature of the ultimate reality?
• Is it one thing or is it many different things?
• Can reality be grasped by the senses, or it is transcendent?
• What makes reality different from a mere appearance?
• What is mind, and what is its relation to the body?
• Is there a cause and effect relationship between reality and appearance?
• Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?
• Are human actions free, or predetermined by a supernatural force?
• What is human being? A thinking mind? A perishable body? Or a combination of both?
• What is time?
• What is the meaning of life?
 metaphysics Con…
• At first, questions like, ‗What is real?‘ seem too simple to bother asking. But
consider George Knight‘s
• example about the existence of a floor What is exactly the nature of the floor
upon which you stand?
• It may seem to have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat,
solid, and smooth;
• it has a particular color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as
wood or concrete; and about the reality of the floor.
• the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist of atoms, electrons, protons,
and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone.
• A 3rd position is offered by a passing chemist; floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons
associated in a particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental
influences, such as heat, cold, wetness, dryness, &oxidation.
 metaphysics Con…
• It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it
appears.
If the reality of a common floor is confusing, what about the larger problems that
presents themselves as humankind searches for the ultimate reality of the universe?

• Metaphysical questions are the most basic to ask because they

provide the foundation upon which all subsequent inquiry is based.
Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets or
aspects.

i) Cosmological Aspect
ii) Theological Aspect
iii) Anthropological Aspect
iv) Ontological Aspect:
 four aspects metaphysics

• i) Cosmological Aspect: Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the

origin, nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system.
• Questions such as these populate the kingdom of cosmology: ―How did the universe
originate and develop? Did it come about by accident or design? Does its existence have
any purpose?‖

• ii) Theological Aspect: part of religious theory that deals with conceptions of and about
God.
―Is there a God? If so, is there one or more than one?
What are the attributes of God?
If God is both all good and all powerful, why does evil exist?
If God exists, what is His relationship to human beings and the ‗real‘ world of everyday life?‖
 four aspects metaphysics con..
• iii) Anthropological Aspect: deals with the study of human beings
questions like the following:

• What is the relation between mind and body?

• Is mind more fundamental than body,
• with body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is humanity‘s
• moral status?
• Are people born good, evil, or morally neutral?
• To what extent are individuals free?
• Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and actions determined by
• their environment, inheritance, or a divine being? Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it?
People have obviously adopted different positions on these questions, and those positions
influence their political, social, religious, and educational ideals and practices.
 four aspects metaphysics con..

• iv) Ontological Aspect: Ontology is the study of the nature of existence, or what it
means for anything to exist.
questions
―Is basic reality found in matter or physical energy (the world we can sense),
or is it found in spirit or spiritual energy?
Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter and
spirit), or many?‖
―Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it merely orderable by the human mind?
Is it fixed and stable, or is change its central feature?
Is this reality friendly, unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?‖
 3.2 Epistemology
• Epistemology is the study at source of knowledge
• epistemology the Greek words
• episteme, meaning (knowledge, understanding) and logos, meaning (study ).
questions as
• ―What is true?‖ and ―How do we know?‖
• Thus, epistemology covers two areas: the content of thought and thought itself. The
study of epistemology deals with
• issues related to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the sources
through which we gain information.
 Epistemology con..
• The following are among the questions/issues with which Epistemology deals:
•  What is knowledge?
•  What does it mean to know?
•  What is the source of knowledge? Experience? Reason? Or both?
•  How can we be sure that what we perceive through our senses is correct?
• Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether
reality can be known. However, one must decide through what sources reality may be
known, and must have some concept of how to judge the validity of their knowledge.
 Epistemology con….

• A second foundational issue to epistemology is whether all truth is relative, or

whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change? Is it possible that
what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is ―Yes‖ to the previous
questions, such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such
Truth is eternally and universally true irrespective of time or place.
 A major aspect of epistemology relates to the
sources of human knowledge.
1. empiricism
2. Rationalism
3. Rationalist
5. Intuition
6. Revelation
7. Authoritative
 Epistemology con…
empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge
appears to be built into the very nature of human experience.
eg. individuals walk out of doors on a spring day and see the beauty of the
landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of
 Rationalism is second important source of human knowledge is reason. The
view that reasoning, thought, or logic is the central factor in knowledge is known
as rationalism.
The rationalist, in emphasizing humanity‘s power of thought and the mind‘s
contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the senses alone cannot provide
universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another.
 Epistemology con…
• Intuition- The ability to understand some thing immediately sense perception.
Without the need for conscious reasoning
• It is the third source of human knowledge that is not derived from conscious
reasoning or immediate sense perception.
• Intuition occurs as a sudden flash of insight varying circumstances as a source
of both religious and secular knowledge.
• The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a safe
method of obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and
may lead to absurd claims unless it is controlled by or checked against
other methods of knowing. Instinctive knowledge, however, has the distinct
advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of human experience.
 Epistemology con…
• Revelation is source of knowledge is supernatural reality that breaks into the
natural order which focus prime importance in the field of religion.
• knowledge is accepted by faith and cannot be proved or disproved empirically.

• this form of knowledge has the distinct advantage of being an omniscient

(knowing every thing )source of information that is not available through other
epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed
by Christians to be absolute and uncontaminated.
Eg. Christians are absolute and uncontaminated, it is generally realized that
distortion of truth can occur in the process of human interpretation
 Epistemology con…
• authority.
• Authoritative knowledge is accepted as true because it comes from experts or has
been dedicated over time as tradition. In the classroom, the most common
source of information is some authority, such as a textbook, teacher, or
reference work.
• Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its advantages as well as
its dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept any
statement unless they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On
the other hand, if authoritative knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect
assumptions, then such knowledge will surely be distorted.
 Note

• it is important to note that one source of information alone might not

be capable of supplying people with all knowledge.
• It might be important to see the various sources as
complementary rather than antagonistic.
• However, it is true that most people choose one source as being more
basic than, or preferable to, the others, and then use it as a benchmark
for testing other sources of knowledge.
• For example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained
empirically is generally seen as the most basic and reliable type.
 3.3 Axiology
• Axiology is the philosophical study of value, which originally meant the worth of
something. It includes the studies of moral values, aesthetic values, as well as
political and social values.
• Axiology Greek words -―Axios‖, meaning ―value, worth‖, and ―logos‖, mea
ning ―reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study
questions such as:
 What is a value?
 Where do values come from?
 How do we justify our values?
 How do we know what is valuable?
 What is the relationship between values and knowledge?
 What kinds of values exist?
 Axiology
• Axiology deals with the above and related issues of value in three areas, namely
Ethics, Aesthetics, and Social/Political Philosophy.
I . Ethics,= custom or habit (morality of human action. How persons
which is also known as Moral Philosophy, is a science that deals with the philosophical
study of moral principles, values, codes, and rules, which may be used as standards
for determining what kind of human conduct/action is said to be good or bad, right or wrong.
Ethics has three main branches:
1.meta-ethics, 2. normative ethics, and 3. applied ethics. Ethics raises various
questions including:
 What is good/bad?
 What is right/wrong?
 Is it the Right Principle or the Good End that makes human action/conduct moral?
 Axiology (Three main branches Ethics)
1. Meta-ethics is the highly technical philosophical discipline that deals with investigation of
the meaning of ethical terms, including a critical study of how ethical statements can be
verified.
• It is more concerned with the meanings of such ethical terms as good or bad and right or
wrong than with what we think is good or bad and right or wrong.
2. Normative Ethics refers to the ethical studies that attempt to study and determine
precisely the moral rules, principles, standards and goals by which human beings might
evaluate and judge the moral values of their conducts, actions and decisions. It is the reasoned
search for principles of human conduct,
3. Applied Ethics is a normative ethics that attempts to explain, justify, apply moral rules,
principles, standards, and positions to specific moral problems, such as capital
punishment, euthanasia (pain less killing for patient suffering from disease) , abortion, animal
right, and so on. This area of normative ethics is termed applied because the ethicist
applies or uses general ethical princes in an attempt to resolve specific moral problems.
 Axiology II. Aesthetics
II Aesthetics is the theory of beauty. It studies about the particular value of our artistic
and aesthetic experiences.
It deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory/emotional values, perception, and
matters of taste and sentiment.
The following are typical Aesthetic questions:
•  What is art?
•  What is beauty?
•  What is the relation between art and beauty?
•  What is the connection between art, beauty, and truth?
 Axiology III. Social/Political Philosophy

• Social/Political Philosophy studies about of the value judgments operating in a civil

society, be it social or political.
• The following questions are some of the major Social/Political Philosophy primarily
deal with:
•  What form of government is best?
•  What economic system is best?
•  What is justice/injustice?
•  What makes an action/judgment just/unjust?  What is societ
 4.2 Logic
• Logic is the study of correct thinking. or theory of principles of right reasoning.
• It deals with formulating the right principles of reasoning; and developing
scientific methods of evaluating the validity and soundness of arguments. The
following are among the various questions raised by Logic:
•  What is an argument; What does it mean to argue?
•  What makes an argument valid or invalid
•  What is a sound argument?
•  What relation do premise and conclusion have in argument?
•  How can we formulate and evaluate an argument?
• What is a fallacy?; What makes an argument fallacious?
 CHAPTER TWO BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Logic can be defined in different
Logic is the process of the correct study of reasoning.
• Logic is a science that evaluates arguments.
• Logic is the study of methods for evaluating arguments. More precisely, logic is the
study of methods for evaluating whether the premises of arguments adequately
support or provide a good evidence for the conclusions.
• Logic is a science that helps to develop the method and principles that we may use
as a criterion for evaluating the arguments of others and as a guide to
construct good arguments of our own.
 Logic
What is the Benefit of Studying Logic?
• As human beings, we all think, reason and argue; and we all are subject to the
reasoning of other people. Some of us may think well, reason well and argue well, but
some of us may not.
• It helps us to develop the skill needed to construct sound (good) and fallacy-
free arguments of one‘s own and to evaluate the arguments of others;
• It provides a fundamental defense against the prejudiced and uncivilized
attitudes that threaten the foundation of a civilized and democratic society;
• It helps us to distinguish good arguments from bad arguments;
• It helps us to understand and identify the common logical errors in reasoning;
• It helps us to understand and identify the common confusions that often happen due
to misuse of language;
 What is an Argument?
• An argument is a group of (reason) given in support sth statements which contained
to proof something consists of premises and conclusion or reason to believe, one
of the other, the (conclusion).
• An argument is a systematic combination of one or more than one statements, which
are claimed to provide a logical (reason) evidence (i.e., premise(s) to another
single statement which is claimed to follow logically from the alleged evidence
(i.e., conclusion).
Argument Statements premises
conclusion
• Statements is a sentence that is either true or false
• Premises is the evidence that supports conclusion.
• conclusion is the statement that is implied by the premise
 argument
• an argument is a group statement, which contains at least one premise and one and only one
conclusion.
• a premise is a statement that set forth the reason or evidence, which is given for accepting the
conclusion of an argument.
• It is claimed evidence; and a conclusion is a statement, which is claimed to follow from the
given evidence (premise). In other words, the conclusion is the claim that an argument is
trying to establish.
Example-1: Example-2:
• 1) All Ethiopians are Africans. (Premise 1)
Tsionawit is Ethiopian. (Premise2)
Therefore, Tsionawit is African. (Conclusion)
• 2) Some Africans are black. (Premise-1)
Zelalem is an African. (Premise-2)
Therefore, Zelalem is black. (Conclusion)
 Logic Argument
• Eg. Argument:-
All cats are mammals. Statement 1.
premises All mammals are animals. statement 2.
Therefore, all cats are animals conclusion
A statement is a declarative sentence that has a truth-value of either true or
false.
A statement is a type of sentence that could stand as a declarative sentence.
a) Dr. Abiy Ahmed the current Prime Minister of Ethiopia.
b) Mekelle is the capital city of Tigray Region.
c) Ethiopia was colonized by Germany
 Logic Statement CON

• In fact, sentence is a group of words or phrases that enables us to express

ideas or thought meaningfully. However, unlike statements, none of the
above sentences can be either true or false. Hence, none of them can be classified
as statement. As a result, none of them can make up an argument.
 LOGIC Statement CON…
• Statement (a) and (b) are true, because they describe things as they are, or assert what
really is the case. Hence, „Truth‟ is their truth-value. Whereas statement (c) is false
because it asserts what is not, and „Falsity‟ its truth-value.
• N.B: Logicians used proposition and statement interchangeably. However, in strict
(technical) sense, proposition is the meaning or information content of a statement. In this
chapter, the term statement is used to refer premises and a conclusion.
• However, there are sentences that are not statements, and hence should be used to
construct an argument. Examples:
• a) Would you close the window? (Question)
• b) Let us study together. (Proposal)
• c) Right on! (Exclamation)
• d) I suggest that you read philosophy texts. (Suggestion)
• e) Give me your ID Card, Now! (Command)
 Premise- Conclusion

Example-1: Example-2:
• 1) All Ethiopians are Africans. (Premise 1)
Tsionawit is Ethiopian. (Premise2)
Therefore, Tsionawit is African. (Conclusion)
• 2) Some Africans are black. (Premise-1)
Zelalem is an African. (Premise-2)
Therefore, Zelalem is black. (Conclusion)
The premises really do support the conclusion
The1st premises has good reason for its conclusion which is true, and therefore, the argument
is good . But the second argument fail to support the conclusion adequately. Even if they
may be true, they do not provide good reason to believe that the conclusion is true. Therefore,
it is bad argument, but it is still an argument.
 Methods to distinguish premises from conclusion and vice versa?
• Premises and conclusions are difficult to identify for a number of reasons.
• The first technique that can be used to an indicator word.
Here below are some Conclusion Indicators:
Therefore, wherefore, Accordingly,Provided that,It must be that, We may conclude,
Entails that, Hence, It shows that, Whence, Thus, Consequently
,We may infer, It implies that, As a result, So, It follows that
Example:
Women are mammals.
Zenebech is a woman.
Therefore, Zenebech is a mammal
 Here below are some typical Premise Indicators
• Since, As indicated by, Because, Owing to, Seeing that, Given that, As, For
,In that, May be inferred from, Inasmuch as, For the reason that
a statement that follows the indicator word can usually be identified as a premise.
By same the process of elimination, the other remaining single statement will be a
conclusion.
Example:You should avoid any form of cheating on exams because cheating on
exams is punishable by the Senate Legislation of the University.
Based on the above rule, the premise of this argument is “cheating on exams is
punishable by the Senate Legislation of the University‖ because it follows the
premise indicator word ―because‖, and the other statement is a premise.
 Here below are some typical Premise Indicators
• Sometimes a single indicator can be used to identify more than one premise.
Consider the following argument:
• Tsionawit is a faithful wife, for Ethiopian women are faithful wives and Tsionawit is
an Ethiopian.
• The premise indicator ‗‗for‘‘ goes with both ‗‗Ethiopian women are faithful
wives‘‘ and ‗Tsionawit is an Ethiopian”. These are the premises. By process of
elimination, ‗‗Tsionawit is a faithful wife‖ is the conclusion.
 Some without premise indicator and conclusion without
indicators
• When this occurs, the reader/ listener must ask himself or herself such questions as:
•  What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others?
•  What is the arguer trying to prove?
•  What is the main point in the passage?
• The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion
Eg. Our country should increase the quality and quantity of its
military.(c) Ethnic conflicts are recently intensified(p1); boarder
conflicts are escalating(p2); international terrorist activities are
increasing(p3).
 Con…
Ethnic conflicts are recently intensified. (P-1)
Boarder conflicts are escalating. (P-2)
International terrorist activities are increasing. (P-3)
Thus, the country should increase the quality and quantity of its military. (C)
 Types of Arguments: Deduction and Induction
• We as human being may have different argument in our daily life i.e when we start our
life to begin, we need to ask questions like
I. What should I do to day?
II. How many class do I want to teach ?
III. What best technique I want to use in teaching?
To do those all questions every individual needs ,deductive and inductive arguments or
reasons in every moment.
• The reasoning process (inference) that an argument involves is expressed either with
certainty or with probability.
• If the conclusion is claimed to follow with strict certainty or necessity, the
argument is said to be deductive; but if it is claimed to follow only probably, the
argument is said to be inductive.
 Deductive Arguments

• It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to support the conclusion

in such a way that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false.
• Conclusion of deductive argument must be true if the premises are true
Deductive resoing consists of using General principle to infer specific
proposition)

• Eg 1. All Humans are mortal(p1 Socrates is human (p2)

Socrates is mortal(Co)(the conclusion follows with certainty from the
premises
 Deductive Arguments con…
Eg 2. All philosophers are critical thinkers.
Socrates is a philosopher.
Therefore, Socrates is a critical thinker.
Eg3. All African footballers are blacks.
Messi is an African footballer.
It follows that, Messi is black.
the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises with certainty; or
the premises are claimed to support their corresponding conclusion with
a strict necessity.
 Inductive Arguments

• Inductive reasoning consists of using specific proposition to infer General

principle.
• It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to support the conclusion in
such a way that it is improbable for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false.
• Inductive reasoning dose not have as strong conclusion as deductive reasoning
they could be true or false
• E.g Alemu wore black shoes to workout on Monday.
Alemu wore black shoes to workout on Tuesday all (p) arespecific& True
Alemu wore black shoes to workout on Wednesday.
therefore, Mr Alemu always wears black shoes to work.(C) (General)
 Inductive Arguments con..
• N.b Even if all those propositions are true it does not necessarily follow
the conclusion has to be true or if could be false.
• i.e. conclusion of inductive arguments are only ever probabilistic (never
certain)
• we might have sufficient condition (evidence) but we can not be certain
about the truth of the conclusion. However, this does not mean that the
conclusion is wrong or unacceptable, where as it could be correct or
acceptable but only based on probability.
• inductive arguments are those that involve probabilistic reasoning.
 Inductive Arguments con..

• Example-1: Example-2:
Most African leaders are blacks. Almost all women are mammals.
Mandela was an African leader. Hanan is a woman.
Therefore, probably Mandela was black Hence, Hanan is a mammal

• Both of the above arguments are inductive. In both of them, the conclusion
does not follow from the premises with strict necessity, but it does follow
with some degree of probability
• the conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises only probably; or the
premises are claimed to support their corresponding conclusion with
probability.
 Con…
• If we assume that the premises are true, then based on that assumption it is
probable that the conclusion is true.
example, assume that
most African leaders were blacks and that Mandela was an African
leader, then it is improbable that Mandela not been a black, or it is probable
that Mandela was black. But it is not impossible that Mandela not been a
black. Similarly, if we assume that almost
• all women are mammals and that Hanan is a woman, then it is improbable
that Hanan not be a mammal, or it is probable that Hanan is a mammal.
 Differentiating Deductive and Inductive Arguments
• There are three factors that influence the decision about the deductiveness
or inductiveness of an argument‘s inferential claim.
1) The occurrence of special indicator words,
2) The actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion,
and
3) The character or form of argumentation the arguers use
Decision deductive or inductiveness of an argument‘s inferential special
indicator
• Words like ―certainly, necessarily, absolutely, definitely‘‘ indicate that
the argument should be taken as deductive,
• words like, probable, improbable, plausible, implausible, likely,
unlikely, and reasonable to conclude suggest that an argument is
inductive.
• The point is that if an argument draws its conclusion, using either of the
deductive indicator words, it is usually best to interpret it as deductive, but
if it draws its conclusion, using either of the inductive indicator words, it
is usually best to interpret it as inductive.
• (Note that the phrase it must be the case that‘‘ is ambiguous; must‘‘
can indicate either probability or necessity).
 The second factor interpretation of an argument as inductive or deductive con…

• The actual strength of the inferential link between premises and

conclusion.
• If the conclusion actually does follow with strict necessity from the
premises, the argument is clearly deductive. In such an argument, it
is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
• If the conclusion of an argument does not follow with strict
necessity but does follow probably, it is usually best to
interpret it as inductive argument.
 The second factor interpretation of an argument as inductive or deductive con…

• Example-1: Example-2:
• All Ethiopian people love their country The majority of Ethiopian people are poor.
• Debebe is an Ethiopian. Alamudin is an Ethiopian
• Therefore, Debebe loves his country Therefore, Alamudin is poor

In the first example, the conclusion follows with strict necessity from the
premises. If we assume that all Ethiopian people love their country and that
Debebe is an Ethiopian, then it is impossible that Debebe not love his
country. So it is a deductive
 The second factor interpretation of an argument as inductive or deductive con…

• In the second example, the conclusion does not follow from the
premises with strict necessity, but it does follow with some degree of
probability.
• If we assume that the premises are true, then based on that assumption
it is probable that the conclusion is true. the second argument as
inductive.
 the third character or form of argumentation the arguer
uses
The character or form of argumentation the arguer uses

In Deductive Argumentative forms

premises are supposed to provide absolute support for the conclusion.
Five examples of argumentation are arguments
based on mathematics, arguments from definition, and syllogisms:
categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive syllogisms.
 Argument based on mathematics

• it is an argument in which the conclusions depend on some purely

arithmetic or geometric computation or measurement.
1.For example, you can put two orange and three bananas in a bag and
conclude that the bag contains five fruits
2. a square pieces of land and after determining it is ten meter on each side
conclude that its area is a hundred square meter. Since all arguments in
pure mathematics a re deductive, we can usually consider arguments
that depend on mathematics to be deductive as well. A noteworthy
exception, however, is arguments that depend on statistics are usually
best interpreted as inductive.