CONTROL SYSTEMS-I

KEC-602
 Frequency Domain Issues
Consider a closed loop system of plant transfer function G(s) and Feedback
transfer function H(s) respectively.
The closed loop transfer function corresponding to negative feedback may
be written as:

•Poles of 1+G(s)H(s) are identical to the poles of G(s)H(s)

•Zeroes of 1+G(s)H(s) are the Closed Loop Poles of the Transfer Function
•If we take a Complex number take in the s-plane and substitute it into a
Function F(s), it results in another Complex Number which could be plotted
in the F(s) Plane.
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw
the complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if

there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z  times. So, we can
write the number of encirclements N as, N=P−Z

•If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed
closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

•If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the
encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the
enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
 Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire right half of the ‘s’
plane by selecting it as a closed path. This selected path is called
the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the
closed loop transfer function are in the left half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of
the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic
equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to
find the roots. So, let us correlate these roots of the characteristic equation as
follows.
•The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the
open loop transfer function.
•The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the
closed loop transfer function

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,P=0⇒N=−Z
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,Z=0⇒N=P

Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the critical point
(-1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which is nothing but the
poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin
to (-1+j0) gives the characteristic equation plane.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots

Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots.

•Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.

•Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then
varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.

•Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ω ranging from −∞ to zero
(0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).

•The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros at
origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of the
polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the polar plot
starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of the closed loop control system
using the Nyquist stability criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement, then the closed loop control system is absolutely stable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is stable,
marginally stable or unstable based on the values of these parameters.

•Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency

•Gain margin and phase margin

Phase Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis (phase
angle is 1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωpc.

Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is known as
the gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross
over frequency and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is stable.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is marginally stable.
•If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.

Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist
plot at the phase cross over frequency.
GM=1Mpc
Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over frequency.

Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the gain
cross over frequency.
PM=1800  +ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
The stability of the control system based on the relation
between the gain margin and the phase margin is listed
below.
•If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase
margin PM is positive, then the control system is stable.
•If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase
margin PM is zero degrees, then the control system
is marginally stable.
•If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase
margin PM is negative, then the control system is unstable.
REFERENCES
  I. J Nagrath and M. Gopal, Control Systems
Engineering, Fifth edition, New age International, 5th
Edition, 2009.
  Normal S. Nise,, Control Systems Engineering, 7th
Edition, John Wiley,2014
  K.Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2010
 N.S. Beniwal and R. Beniwal, Automatic Control
Systems with MATLAB Programming, University
Science Press, Laxmi Publication PVT Ltd, 2009