Networking

A networking is any collection of independent computers

that communicate with one another over a shared network
medium. A computer network is a collection of two or
more connected computers. When these computers are
joined
in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as
modems, printers, tape or CD-ROM
drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected
using services available from phone companies, people
can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or
conduct video conferences in real time with other remote
users.
In the simple word if the more then two computer
connected to each other to share there resource (hared
ware and software) and they are able to send and receive
data and information from one location to another
location.
Every networking includes
 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless
communication between
 networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or
2000, Unix and Linux.
Types of networking
Computer networking is divided in to two types:
On the Bases of architecture
On the bases of geographical area

On the Bases of architecture: On the bases of architecture

computer network is classified in to two types :
1- Client server network.
2- Peer to peer network.
Client server and peer to peer network
Client server network: The client server networking there is a dedicated
server, A dedicated server function as a server only not as a client. All the
client computer are controlled and manage my server only.

Peer to peer network:

In peer to peer network there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy
among the computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore known
as peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no
one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations
where the users are allocated in the same general area.
Diagram
On the bases of geographical are:
These network are classified in to three types they are
1- LAN
2-MAN
3-WAN

LAN: A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate

with one another over a shared network medium. LANs are networks usually
confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. It
can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people. In the simple word if more then two
computers are interconnected to each other with in building , office to share
there resource and they are able to send and receive the information from one
location to another location and maximum distance is 0 to 10 KM. For example
Ethernet.
MAN
It stands for metropolitan Area network. A MAN is a network which is larger then a LAN. It is
called metropolitan because it covers area of city about 10 to 100 km.if the more then two
computers are able to share there resource and they send and receive data with in city such
type of network is called MAN for example Entrant.

 WAN: It stands for wide area network. Wide area networking combines multiple LANs
that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting
the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone
lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier
services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for
employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally
linked using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending
data sent over vast distances. In the simple word it is larger then MAN. WANS
interconnected LANs which may be opposite side of country. This is located around the
world. For Example internet
The OSI Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has
become an International standard and serves as a guide
for networking. This model is the best known and most
widely used guide to describe networking environments.
Vendors design network products based on the
specifications of the OSI model. It provides a description
of how network hardware and software work together in
a layered fashion to make communications possible. It
also helps with trouble shooting by providing a frame of
reference that describes how components are supposed
to function.
OSI
 Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires,
cables, and there media along with the length. Also this layer takes note of the
electrical signals that transmit data throughout system.
 Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the
electrical signals in the network. The layer also determines the size and format
of data sent to printers, and other devices.
 Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two
dissimilar networks.
 Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for
data to be distributed and addressed to other nodes (workstations).
 Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one
node (workstation) to another node (workstation). A session has to be made
before we can transport information to another computer.
 Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to
the node.
 Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will
communicate with say the operation
Diagram
 Protocol
Network protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate.
A protocol defines how computers identify one another on a network, the
form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is
processed once it reaches its final destination. In the simple word
protocol is a set of rules which is used to send and receive data and
information in the network. for example FTP,TCP/IP ,etc.
 TCP/IP :TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for
Internet Protocol. The term TCP/IP is not limited just to these two
protocols, however. Frequently, the term TCP/IP is used to refer to a
group of protocols related to the internet. This network is basically used
to control transmission information and data.
 Telnet: Used to connect to a host and emulate a terminal that the remote
server can recognize in the network.
 FTP Used to send and receive files from a remote host and it is used to
upload and download files from client to server and server to client.

 HTTP:Used for the web to send documents that are encoded in HTML.
 SMTP: It is used to E-Mail over the internet.
Topology
Network topologies describe the ways in which the elements of
network are mapped. They describe the physical and logical
arrangement of the network nodes. The physical topology of a network
refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
In the simple way computer topology is a arrangement of computer,
wires and components in the network. There are six types of topology
they are :
 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Types of topology
Bus Topology:
All the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on a bus topology are
connected by one single cable. A bus topology consists of a main run of cable
with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Popular on LANs because they
are inexpensive and easy to install.

 Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement.
 Require less cable
 It is best suited for small networks.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that
 can be connected.
 This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
 If bus is breakdown then complete network is breakdown.
Diagram
Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction. A failure in any cable or device breaks the
loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network we use the Token Ring
technology token, or small data packet, is continuously passed around the network. When a device
needs to transmit, it reserves the token for the next trip around, then attaches its data packet to it.

Advantage of Ring Topology

 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit.
 Easier to Mange than a Bus Network
 Good Communication over long distances

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire network.
Diagram
Star Topology

In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is connected to a
central device called a hub. The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along
to all the other nodes in the network. Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch.
The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. The star
topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the system to a central
node.
Advantages of Star Topology
 Easy to manage
 Easy to locate problems (cable/workstations)
 Easier to expand than a bus or ring topology.
 Easy to install and wire.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators.
Diagram
Tree Topology

A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks

arranged in a hierarchy. This tree has individual peripheral nodes which are required to
transmit to and receive from one other only and are not required to act as repeaters or
regenerators. The tree topology arranges links and nodes into distinct hierarchies in order
to allow greater control and easier troubleshooting. This is particularly helpful for
colleges, universities and schools so that each of the connect to the big network in some
way.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
 All the computers have access to the larger and their immediate networks.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Diagram
Mesh Topology

In this topology, each node is connected to every other node in the network.
Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult. In this type of network,
each node may send message to destination through multiple paths. While the data is
travelling on the Mesh Network it is automatically configured to reach the destination
by taking the shortest route.

Advantage of Mesh Topology

 No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
 It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used for data
communication.
 Points to point links make fault identification easy.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
 There is mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage.
 Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.
 Cabling cost is high.
Diagram
Hybrid Topology

 A combination of any two or more network topologies. A hybrid topology

always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected. It is
a mixture of above mentioned topologies. Usually, a central computer is
attached with sub-controllers which in turn participate in a variety of
topologies.

Advantages of a Hybrid Topology

 It is extremely flexible.
 It is very reliable.
Disadvantages of a Hybrid Topology
 Expensive
Diagram
Transmission media
Various physical media can used for actual transmission of information from
one place to another place. The transmission media generate path way between
sender and receiver. Each transmission media has its own properties like
speed,cost,error rate. In the simple word transmission media is path way
networked entities use to connect each other.
The transmission media includes cable and wireless technology that allow
networked device to contact each other. But transmission cannot guarantee
that other network device will understand a message. it is divided in to two
types : Guided and unguided media
Diagram
Types of transmission media
Guided media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. In
guided media the
Communication happen throw wires and cable is called guided media. it is
further divided in to three types.
Types Of Guided Media

 Twisted-Pair Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber-Optic Cable

The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair
would consist of a wire used for the signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of
the pair would occur on the other wire. This wire is a common schema using e
for using copper wire as a telecommunication cable. This cable consist of two
insulated strands of copper wire which are twisted with each other.
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is made of two conductors that share a common axis
Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held
inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing
a shield. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the
outer conductor. The outer shield protects the inner conductor from
outside electrical signals. The excellent control of the impedance
characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred
than Twisted Pair cable.
Diagram
Fiber optic cable
optic cable is made of a glass or plastic core surrounded by
more glass which is called cladding. A fiber optic cable
consist of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is
capable of transmitting message modulated on to light
waves.
Diagram
Unguided media
 The unguided media we have microwave system, communication
satellite system which are used connect other component in the
network. In the simple word Unguided media transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communicate.

Types of unguided media

 Radio Waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
Diagram
Radio waves
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio
and television, and paging systems. They can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use Omni directional antennas.
Diagram
Satellite transmission
 A satellite is an object built and placed by human in
earth orbit. These are also called artificial satellite
because these man made. These satellite uses
microwave transmission frequency . Satellites are
used for different purpose ,common type include
military, communication,weatherforcasting and
research.
MICROWAVES

Microwaves are used for uncast communication such as cellular

telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.Higher
frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls. Use directional
antennas -point to point line of sight communications.
Diagram
Infrared
Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
Mode of communication
The mode of communication shows how . two or
more devices communicate each other. They are three
types

Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex.
Simplex: in simplex communication one of the
communicating devices can only send data where other
can only receive it.Radia, TV are the example of simplex.
Half Duplex: Half Duplex refers to two way
communication but only one can transmit data at a
time. when one device sending data the other device
only receive and vice versa. walkie talkie.
Full Duplex: in full duplex both devices are capable of
sending and receive the data at the same
time .Bidirectional communication at the same time.
Network components
Networking Components: Networking components are those devices which are used to
connect computers in the entire network. They are
Network interface card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is a card that is installed in a computer so that it can be
connected to a network. It is also called LAN card. Personal computer typically contains
NICcard.  
Modem
It is transmitter which translates the data into transmittable signal. Data generated by
digital computer is not recognized by media so it must be converted into analog signal for
transmission. And at receiving end the data must recovered back into digital from. Thus,
modem converts digital data into analog and analog into digital and vice versa.

Hub
Hub is a connective device with multiple ports for connecting computers in a star topology.
It accepts data and broadcast data to the all the computer. It does not have intelligence to
find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 

 
Cont..
Switch
Switch is attempts to select the most direct path needed to send packet to its destination. It is
known as intelligent hub. A switch is generally more “intelligent than a hub. It offers better
performance than hub. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data that makes it
very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively
to correct port only.  
Bridge
Bridge is connect two network segment together, bridge is often used to reduced data traffic on a
network. Bridge provides several advantages by dividing large network into self-contained units.
Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
 
Repeaters A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in
transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss. ... In a
data network, a repeater can relay messages between sub networks that use different protocols or
cable types.
Gateway. A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. It may be a
router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network. ... It
allows computers within the local network to send and receive data over the Internet.