Synthetic Aperture Radar

Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar that is

used to create two-dimensional images or 3- D
Reconstruction  of objects, such as landscapes.

Principle :-

•  
• SAR uses the motion of the radar antenna over a
target region to provide finer spatial resolution
 than conventional stationary beam-scanning
radars.
• To create a SAR image, successive pulses
of radio waves are transmitted to "illuminate"
a target scene, and the echo of each pulse is
received and recorded. The pulses are
transmitted and the echoes received using a
single beam forming antenna,
with wavelengths of a meter down to several
millimetres
• Why Antenna should be located in a moving
Platform?
• For a fixed antenna size and orientation, objects
which are further away remain illuminated longer -
therefore SAR has the property of creating larger
synthetic apertures for more distant objects, which
results in a consistent spatial resolution over a
range of viewing distances.
•
• The distance the SAR device travels over a target
during the period when the target scene is
illuminated creates the large synthetic antenna
aperture (the size of the antenna). Typically, the
larger the aperture, the higher the image resolution
will be, regardless of whether the aperture is
physical (a large antenna) or synthetic (a moving
antenna) – this allows SAR to create high-resolution
images with comparatively small physical antennas.
• As the SAR device on board the aircraft or
spacecraft moves, the antenna location relative to
the target changes with time. 
• Signal processing of the successive recorded radar
echoes allows the combining of the recordings from
these multiple antenna positions.
• This process forms the synthetic antenna
aperture and allows the creation of higher-
resolution images than would otherwise be
possible with a given physical antenna
• how do echoes appear in the image, how bright do
they register in an image?
• image we can define it in the form of a matrix of
numbers, they are made up of different pixels,
image made up of different pixels where by pixel
mean the smallest unit of an image. And generally,
we consider image as a matrix of numbers.
• So, in simplified terms, some objects shall give rise
to smaller echoes and some objects shall give rise
to larger echoes. And these eventually get recorded
in an image something like this with bright and dark
pixels, larger echo, medium echo, smaller echo. So,
if we zoom out slowly
• So, remember SAR image is not a photograph
made with microwaves. but then a radar image is a
fundamental collection of data points,
fundamental collection of data samples.
• imaging radar we discussed that individual echoes
from the targets are used to generate a number of
image data points.
• Now, these targets can be distributed targets or
individual targets and by some means the return
echoes from the targets they are being related to
the spatial dimensions of the target
• Operating Frequency : Microwave ?
• Scattering :- is nothing but the redirection of an
incident electromagnetic energy by an object.
• reflection, refraction and diffraction all are
considered as different forms of scattering
• scattering counts is important is the size of the
target in relation to the incident wavelength
• Example :-
• so interaction of microwaves with vegetation is highly complex
because leaves they scatter. And in a forest, there are leaves
of varying length, varying sizes, varying types. And as the
wavelengths of microwaves are of the same order as the
structural elements of a forest, the scattering can be quite
complex, it cannot be straight forward, it has to be quite
complex.
• And small wavelength like X band and C band they shall not
penetrate a dense canopy. Why? Because canopy elements
are large for these small wavelengths. Let me reiterate small
wavelengths that like X and C band they shall not penetrate a
dense canopy because the canopy elements are large for
these small wavelengths. Whereas microwaves in the L band
and in the P band they are able to penetrate further into the
canopy
• few bands in microwave remote sensing, their
applications and the satellites which have sensors
using these bands or operating in these bands
• Technical Terms : -
Swath :- Swath refers to the strip of the Earth's surface
from which data are collected by a side-looking airborne
radar. It is the width of the imaged scene in the range
dimension
Nadir:- is the direction pointing directly below a particular
location; that is, it is one of two vertical directions at a
specified location
• Look Angle :- it is the angle from the Nadir direction that is from
the perpendicular direction to the platform, from the Nadir direction
to the Instrument line of sight, from the nadir direction to the
instrument line of sight that is the look angle
• Incident Angle :- incidence angle is measured between
the line of sight and the normal to the ground surface
• If the platform hosting the sensor is an aircraft we
can assume a flat earth wherein look angle and
incidence angle can be considered as same, equal,
for any given line of sight.
• But we know that earth is not flat and when the
platform which is hosting the sensor is a satellite,
which is operating at a much higher altitude than
the aircraft, we need to consider the curvature of
the earth, earth curvature effects need to be
considered. It has to be taken into account.
Range – Resolution :-
The target resolution of radar is its ability to distinguish
between targets that are very close in either range .
Azimuth – Resolution :-
it is the ability of a Synthetic Aperture Radar sensor to
differentiate between two closely spaced objects or targets
in the azimuth direction.it is the direction of motion of
sensor, flight direction.
• Weapons-control radar, which requires great
precision, should be able to distinguish between
targets that are only yards apart.
• Search radar is usually less precise and only
distinguishes between targets that are hundreds of
yards or even miles apart.
• Pulse :-Pulse radar emits short and powerful pulses
and in the silent period receives the echo signals.
• to understand more about range resolution range
resolution. we need to understand what is a pulse
and duration of a pulse
• how finely can a radar system measure the distance
between the sensor as well as the target that indicates
the quality of a radar.
• when it comes to accuracy of range resolution, it is the
ability to distinguish between two-point targets. So again,
how does a radar distinguish between two targets?
• Accuracy depends on distinguishing between their
echoes,
• Radar is going to transmit pulses with a certain duration,
which is going to travel hit the target, it is going to get
scattered in all directions and the return echoes.
• how does a radar correctly distinguish between the
echoes that are coming from two different targets that is
by differentiating or distinguishing between their echoes
• T1 and T2, two objects. Now, assume what you see in red are
the return echoes from these two objects, T1 and T2, and
they are shown far apart in the range direction, which is why
their return echoes are distinctly separated. Two objects far
apart in range direction which is giving rise to distinct
echoes.
• Now, let me give you a reverse scenario wherein the two
objects, T1 and T2, are very close apart, so close apart that
their echoes tend to overlap.
• what you see here is two objects, T1 and T2, that are so close
apart in the range direction such that their echoes tend to
overlap. Now, if the echoes overlap we cannot tell one apart
from the other.
• So, range resolution or the ability to distinguish return echoes
from the two targets, it is dependent on the duration of
microwave pulse transmitted by radar.
So how can we define range resolution ?
range resolution, which is given by c τp /2
Pulse width = τ
p

What you see here are echoes of pulses that are

being transmitted from the satellite, it hits the
target, T1 and T2 .
echo from t2 when it reaches t1 just as the tail end of
echo from t1 has left
This brings us to a very important realization that the
range resolution is dependent on the pulse length,
c here denotes the speed of light, which means
shorter the pulse length closer the two targets, T1
and T2, can be before their echoes overlap and as a
consequence better shall be the range resolution.
let us think about it practically, because in reality it is
going to be a challenge to go for transmitters which
are capable of generating very short pulses with a
high peak power.
• Case-1

• https://www.radartutorial.eu/01.basics/pic/ra3-100m.big.gif

Shown here is a pulse with pulse length, cτp is given as 600 meter ,
because τp is 2 μ second. And assume this pulse is trying to detect two
aircrafts, let this be T1 and T2, two targets, two aircrafts, which are at a
distance of say 200 meters.
• Now, the distance I am measuring from the nose of one aircraft to the
nose of the other aircraft. So, the aircrafts are closed apart, so that their
distance is 200 meters.
• And I have shown you a pulse wherein cτp is 600 meters, which means
the range resolution is going to be cτp/ 2 that is 300 meters,
• which means if the separation distance between the two
targets, that is the two aircrafts are 300 meters, it will be
detected by the radar, which means for this case when the
separation distance is 200 meters the radar which is
sending out a pulse of this pulse duration,
https://www.radartutorial.eu/01.basics/pic/ra2-200m.big.gif

• it will not be able to differentiate between the echoes

coming from the two targets, very difficult.
Case -2 : -

Now, let me give you a another case wherein cτp remains the same
τ
600 meters, p is 2 μ second, but then now I have the aircraft, the
distance between the aircraft has 400 meters, which means the
distance from the nose of one aircraft to the nose of the other
aircraft it is 400 meters, which is greater than the range resolution
of 300 meters, which means this radar system will be able to
differentiate between the echoes that are coming from two
targets, which are placed at 400 meters range resolution.
• So, let us try to understand what to do because we need short
pulses for better range resolution, at the same time we should
have a high peak power
• Chirped Pulse ( Transmitting the pulses with
frequency modulation ) :-
It is another method to increase the range resolution .

This relies on frequency modulation , we are

sweeping the signal across a range of bandwidth, so
that the transmitted signals get encoded and this
makes it easy for distinguishing in time .
• chirped pulse, which is linear frequency modulated
pulse. So, defining range resolution as a function of
bandwidth of the signal, bandwidth of the signal.
• Remember as the range of frequencies increases
the range resolution shall be better and better.
• So, now you see an expression here for slant range
resolution, where B stands for the bandwidth, c is
the speed of light. So, now I am defining range
resolution as a function of bandwidth of the signal.
Remember as the range of frequencies increases
the range resolution shall be better and better
• And it is also independent of the target, which
means no matter what target is being observed a
radar system shall have a range resolution which is
system limited. Also range resolutions are defined
using pulse bandwidth rather than distance and
remember larger bandwidth give better range
resolution.
 Synthetic Aperture View Point
• Synthetic Aperture Radar can collect the
information with the help of echoes scattered from
the target .
• We can send the EM Wave toward the Target by
following modes
1. Scan SAR mode
2. Spot Light Mode
3. Strip Map Mode
• Scan SAR mode :-
• Typically for regional to global scale monitoring we
usually need wide Swath coverage is required.
• And to get a wider Swath of imagery it is necessary
to acquire images simultaneously by transmitting
pulses to image a small azimuth section of Swath
followed by imaging an immediate adjacent Swath
and then this operation is repeated
• So, the arrows shows the way in which scanSAR
operation is carried out. Adjacent areas are being
repeatedly scanned and imaged and scanSAR mode
as the name suggests, this is commonly used in
Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar ASAR .
• Spot Light Mode :-
• spotlight mode the steering capabilities of SAR is
used to continuously point a narrow beam of
microwaves on the same area or target as the
instrument flies or moves with the platform.
• So, as a consequence we get very high resolution
for one patch of the ground, whereas the other area
has not paid much attention here.
• So, you are focusing on only one patch of the
ground, so it has both advantage as well as
disadvantage.
• Advantage is for this patch of the ground on which
the spotlight is fixed, you will get a very high
resolution,
• Disadvantage :- other areas are neglected.
• Strip Map Mode :-
A small diagram is shown here so that we understand
what a stripmap mode wherein an image is formed
when the Synthetic Aperture Radar is following the
line, flight line of the platform
 Introduction to interferometric SAR
• Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) techniques
combine two or more SAR images over the same region to
reveal surface topography or surface motion. If the combined
SAR images originate from slightly different positions, the
topography of the surface can be mapped. In contrast, if
images from the same position but taken at different times
are combined, the difference between them will show
motion, or deformation, of the surface in the time between
the two images.
Interferometric SAR is concerned with the difference in phase
from multiple passes or positions. Phase is affected by
interaction with the ground surface, the satellite's position in
orbit and topography.
• The radar signal reflected back from a single resolution
unit, i.e., one pixel, is a combination of many targets or
“scatterers” on the ground – trees, mountains, buildings,
etc. This means that the signal returned to the radar can be
random and unrelated to the adjacent unit/pixel signal if
there are objects scattering the signals in many directions.
• However, as long as this combination of objects is
consistent – those trees, mountains and buildings remain
unchanged – the reflected signal for a single unit will
maintain the same initial characteristics over time. In
producing the interferogram, consistency in the signal will
be canceled out because the wave’s phase will remain the
same.
• Note:- interferometry does not work over water because
its surface is constantly changing.
• Interferogram :-
• Interferograms require 2 images taken at intervals in time
to determine if there has been any shift in land surface
levels. If the ground has moved away from (Subsidence) or
towards (uplift) the satellite between the times of the two
SAR images, a slightly different portion of the wavelength is
reflected back to the satellite resulting in a measurable
phase shift that is proportional to displacement.
• The map of phase shifts, or interferogram, is depicted with
a repeating color scale that shows relative displacement
between the first and the second acquisitions.
• The direction of displacement - subsidence or uplift - is
indicated by sequence of the color progression of the
fringe(s) toward the center of a deforming feature.
Types of InSAR
Types of InSAR:-
• Single Pass Inferometry : -
• In this , we record phase of the echo from the target
in the two channels mounted on a platform .
• This phase difference information of two phase
images provides range difference estimation for a
point
Two Pass Inferometry :-
Temporal Baseline , Spatial Base line !!!

Multipass Inferometry :-
 Introduction to polarimetric SAR
• Polarization refers to the direction of travel of an
electromagnetic wave vector’s tip: vertical (up and down),
horizontal (left to right), or circular (rotating in a constant
plane left or right). The direction of polarization is defined by
the orientation of the wave’s electric field, which is always
90°, or perpendicular, to its magnetic field.
• A radar antenna can be designed to send and receive
electromagnetic waves with a well-defined polarization. By
varying the polarization of the transmitted signal and
receiving several different polarized images from the same
series of pulses, SAR systems can gather detailed information
on the polarimetric properties of the observed surface,
which can reveal the structure, orientation and
environmental conditions of the surface elements.
• For example,
• linearly oriented structures such as buildings or
ripples in the sand tend to reflect and preserve the
coherence (same linear direction) of the
polarimetric signal.
• Randomly oriented structures such as tree leaves
scatter and depolarize the signal as it bounces
multiple times. Multiple polarizations and
wavelength combinations provide different and
complementary surface information.
•
• Imaging radars can have different polarization configurations.
• A single-polarization system transmits and receives a single
polarization, typically the same direction, resulting in a
horizontal-horizontal (HH) or vertical-vertical (VV) imager.
• A dual-polarization system might transmit in one
polarization but receive in two, resulting in either HH and HV
or VH and VV imagery. Dual polarization provides additional
detail about surface features through the different and
complementary echoes.
• A quad-pol system would alternate between transmitting H
and V waves and would receive both H and V, resulting in
HH, HV, VH and VV imagery. To operate in quad-pol mode,
however, the radar must pulse at twice the rate of a single-
or dual-pol system since the transmit polarization has to
alternate between H and V pulse by pulse.
• Quasi-quad-pol mode
• As this type of operation can cause interference
between the received echoes, a variant of quad-pol
known as quasi-quad-pol can be used. operates two
dual-pol modes simultaneously: an HH/HV mode in
the lower bounds of the transmit frequency band,
and a VH/VV mode in the upper portion. Because
the frequencies are different, the two modes don’t
interfere with each other, but for this same reason,
the observed data are mutually incoherent, or have
no phase relationship with each other.
• The complex backscatter data received in the
various polarimetric combinations are related to the
electrical and geometric properties of the observed
surface.
• For example, the surface roughness and moisture
content of soils both contribute to the returned
signal, and the ratio of HH to VV is an indicator of
moisture content.
• Bare surfaces have a weak depolarizing effect,
while vegetation canopies are highly depolarizing.
Applications of polarimetry are widespread and
include agriculture, forestry, geology, hydrology,
oceanography, coastal zones and disaster response.
Applications of Synthetic Aperture RADAR

• Land Subsidence
• Measuring Soil Moisture
• Measuring Water Levels
• Classification of Agriculture Crops
• Flood Mapping
• Digital Elevation Models
• Ground Deformation
•
•
 Ground Deformation