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Chapter2-Part 2 (New)

The document discusses the relational data model and fundamental relational algebra operators such as select, project, join, and cross product. It defines key terms, provides examples of applying the operators to relations, and explains properties of the operators.

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flamezodiark
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
39 views

Chapter2-Part 2 (New)

The document discusses the relational data model and fundamental relational algebra operators such as select, project, join, and cross product. It defines key terms, provides examples of applying the operators to relations, and explains properties of the operators.

Uploaded by

flamezodiark
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 30

Relational Data Model

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B.


Navathe
Learning Outcome
 Identify the fundamental operators used to
retrieve information from a relational database:
 Restrict (select)
 Project
 Join (outer, inner)
 Cross Product
 Describe the purpose and input of each of the
operators.
 Use the operators to write the expressions
based on given relational tables.
 Show the output of the fundamental operators
based on a given database.

Slide 3- 2
Example of a Relation

Slide 3- 3
Definition Summary
Informal Terms Formal Terms
Table Relation
Column Header Attribute
All possible Column Domain
Values
Row Tuple

Table Definition Schema of a Relation


Populated Table State of the Relation
Slide 3- 4
Relational Algebra Overview

 Relational algebra is the basic set of


operations for the relational model
 These operations enable a user to specify
basic retrieval requests (or queries)
 The result of an operation is a new
relation, which may have been formed
from one or more input relations

Slide 3- 5
Relational Algebra Overview
 Relational Algebra consists of several groups of operations
 Unary Relational Operations
○ SELECT (symbol:  (sigma))
○ PROJECT (symbol: (pi))
○ RENAME (symbol:  (rho))
 Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory
○ UNION (  ), INTERSECTION ( ), DIFFERENCE (or
MINUS, – )
○ CARTESIAN PRODUCT ( x )
 Binary Relational Operations
○ JOIN (several variations of JOIN exist)
○ DIVISION
 Additional Relational Operations
○ OUTER JOINS, OUTER UNION
○ AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (These compute summary of
information: for example, SUM, COUNT, AVG, MIN, MAX)

Slide 3- 6
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT

 The SELECT operation (denoted by  (sigma)) is used to select


a subset of the tuples from a relation based on a selection
condition.
 The selection condition acts as a filter
 Keeps only those tuples that satisfy the qualifying
condition
 Tuples satisfying the condition are selected whereas the
other tuples are discarded (filtered out)
 Examples:
 Select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department number is
4:
 (EMPLOYEE)
DNO = 4
 Select the employee tuples whose salary is greater than
$30,000:
 SALARY > 30,000 (EMPLOYEE)

Slide 3- 7
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT

In general, the select operation is denoted


by  <selection condition>(R) where
○ the symbol  (sigma) is used to denote the select
operator
○ the selection condition is a Boolean (conditional)
expression specified on the attributes of relation R
○ tuples that make the condition true are selected
 appear in the result of the operation
○ tuples that make the condition false are filtered
out
 discarded from the result of the operation

Slide 3- 8
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT
(contd.)
 SELECT Operation Properties
 The SELECT operation  <selection condition>(R) produces a relation
S that has the same schema (same attributes) as R
 SELECT  is commutative:
○ 
<condition1>( < condition2> (R)) =  <condition2> ( < condition1> (R))
 Because of commutativity property, a cascade (sequence) of
SELECT operations may be applied in any order:
○ 
<cond1>(<cond2> (<cond3> (R)) = <cond2> (<cond3> (<cond1> ( R)))
 A cascade of SELECT operations may be replaced by a
single selection with a conjunction of all the conditions:
○ <cond1>(< cond2> (<cond3>(R)) =  <cond1> AND < cond2> AND < cond3>(R)))
 The number of tuples in the result of a SELECT is less
than (or equal to) the number of tuples in the input relation
R

Slide 3- 9
The following query results refer to this
database state

Slide 3- 10
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT

 PROJECT Operation is denoted by (pi)


 This operation keeps certain columns
(attributes) from a relation and discards the
other columns.
PROJECT creates a vertical partitioning
○ The list of specified columns (attributes) is kept in
each tuple
○ The other attributes in each tuple are discarded
 Example: To list each employee’s first and
last name and salary, the following is used:
LNAME, FNAME,SALARY(EMPLOYEE)

Slide 3- 11
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT
(cont.)

 The general form of the project operation is:


<attribute list>(R)
 (pi) is the symbol used to represent the project
operation
<attribute list> is the desired list of attributes from
relation R.
 The project operation removes any duplicate
tuples
This is because the result of the project operation
must be a set of tuples
○ Mathematical sets do not allow duplicate elements.

Slide 3- 12
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT
(contd.)
 PROJECT Operation Properties
The number of tuples in the result of
projection <list>(R) is always less or equal to
the number of tuples in R
○ If the list of attributes includes a key of R, then
the number of tuples in the result of
PROJECT is equal to the number of tuples in
R
PROJECT is not commutative
○ ( <list2> (R) ) =  <list1> (R) as long as
<list1>
<list2> contains the attributes in <list1>

Slide 3- 13
Examples of applying SELECT and
PROJECT operations

Slide 3- 14
Relational Algebra Expressions
 We may want to apply several relational
algebra operations one after the other
Either we can write the operations as a
single relational algebra expression by
nesting the operations, or
We can apply one operation at a time and
create intermediate result relations.
 In the latter case, we must give names
to the relations that hold the
intermediate results.

Slide 3- 15
Single expression versus sequence of
relational operations (Example)
 To retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of
all employees who work in department number 5,
we must apply a select and a project operation
 We can write a single relational algebra
expression as follows:
FNAME, LNAME, SALARY( DNO=5(EMPLOYEE))
 OR We can explicitly show the sequence of
operations, giving a name to each intermediate
relation:
DEP5_EMPS   DNO=5(EMPLOYEE)
RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)

Slide 3- 16
Unary Relational Operations: RENAME

 The RENAME operator is denoted by 


(rho)
 In some cases, we may want to rename
the attributes of a relation or the relation
name or both
Useful when a query requires multiple
operations
Necessary in some cases (see JOIN
operation later)

Slide 3- 17
Unary Relational Operations: RENAME
(contd.)
 The general RENAME operation  can be
expressed by any of the following forms:
S (B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes both:
○ the relation name to S, and
○ the column (attribute) names to B1, B1, …..Bn
S(R) changes:
○ the relation name only to S
(B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes:
○ the column (attribute) names only to B1, B1,
…..Bn

Slide 3- 18
Unary Relational Operations: RENAME
(contd.)
 For convenience, we also use a shorthand
for renaming attributes in an intermediate
relation:
If we write:
• RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)
• RESULT will have the same attribute names as
DEP5_EMPS (same attributes as EMPLOYEE)
• If we write:
• RESULT (F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU,
DNO)  RESULT (F.M.L.S.B,A,SX,SAL,SU, DNO)
(DEP5_EMPS)
• The 10 attributes of DEP5_EMPS are renamed
to F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU, DNO,
respectively

Slide 3- 19
Example of applying multiple operations and
RENAME

Slide 3- 20
Venn Diagram (UNION,
INTERSECTION, MINUS)

Slide 3- 21
Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: UNION
 UNION Operation
Binary operation, denoted by 
The result of R  S, is a relation that
includes all tuples that are either in R or in S
or in both R and S
Duplicate tuples are eliminated
The two operand relations R and S must be
“type compatible” (or UNION compatible)
○ R and S must have same number of attributes
○ Each pair of corresponding attributes must be
type compatible (have same or compatible
domains)

Slide 3- 22
Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory: UNION
 Example:
 To retrieve the social security numbers of all
employees who either work in department 5 (RESULT1
below) or directly supervise an employee who works in
department 5 (RESULT2 below)
 We can use the UNION operation as follows:
DEP5_EMPS  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1   SSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2(SSN)  SUPERSSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT  RESULT1  RESULT2
 The union operation produces the tuples that are in
either RESULT1 or RESULT2 or both

Slide 3- 23
Example of the result of a UNION operation

 UNION Example

Slide 3- 24
Relational Algebra Operations from
Set Theory
 Type Compatibility of operands is required for the
binary set operation UNION , (also for
INTERSECTION , and SET DIFFERENCE –, see
next slides)
 R1(A1, A2, ..., An) and R2(B1, B2, ..., Bn) are type
compatible if:
 they have the same number of attributes, and
 the domains of corresponding attributes are type
compatible (i.e. dom(Ai)=dom(Bi) for i=1, 2, ..., n).
 The resulting relation for R1R2 (also for R1R2, or
R1–R2, see next slides) has the same attribute names
as the first operand relation R1 (by convention)

Slide 3- 25
Relational Algebra Operations from Set
Theory: INTERSECTION
 INTERSECTION is denoted by 
 The result of the operation R  S, is a
relation that includes all tuples that are in
both R and S
The attribute names in the result will be the
same as the attribute names in R
 The two operand relations R and S must
be “type compatible”

Slide 3- 26
Relational Algebra Operations from Set
Theory: SET DIFFERENCE (cont.)
 SET DIFFERENCE (also called MINUS or
EXCEPT) is denoted by –
 The result of R – S, is a relation that includes
all tuples that are in R but not in S
The attribute names in the result will be the
same as the attribute names in R
 The two operand relations R and S must
be “type compatible”

Slide 3- 27
Example to illustrate the result of UNION,
INTERSECT, and DIFFERENCE

Slide 3- 28
Some properties of UNION, INTERSECT,
and DIFFERENCE
 Notice that both union and intersection are
commutative operations; that is
 R  S = S  R, and R  S = S  R
 Both union and intersection can be treated as n-
ary operations applicable to any number of
relations as both are associative operations; that is
 R  (S  T) = (R  S)  T
 (R  S)  T = R  (S  T)
 The minus operation is not commutative; that is, in
general
R – S ≠ S – R

Slide 3- 29
Slide 3- 30

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