University of Technology

Electromechanical Engineering Department

Navigation and guidance Branch

Communication Lectures
Third Classes of BSC Degree
Lecturer: Dr. Mohammed Qasim Mohammed Sulttan
2018
Content
s
Digital Communications
Advantages of Digital Communication
Lecture 1 Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature
Comparison between digital signals and analog signals:

Performance of Digital Communication System

1) Effectiveness (validity): Transmission Rate & Bandwidth Efficiency
Lecture 2 2) Reliability: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N) & Bit/Symbol Error Rate (BER, SER) or
Probability of Error

Communication System Models

Transmission Methods in Communication systems
Simplex Communications
Lecture 3 Half Duplex Communications
Full Duplex Communications
Multiplexing techniques
Difference Between FDM and TDM

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 2

 Information & Entropy
Information Properties
Lecture 4 Entropy Properties
Maximum Entropy
Examples

Modulation Techniques in Telecommunication Systems

Pulse Modulation: Sampling, Quantization, and Encoding.
Concept of Sampling
Lecture 5 Concept of Quantization
Types of Quantization
Example

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Waveform (Line coding)

Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling, Unipolar RZ (Return-to-Zero) Signaling
Polar NRZ Signaling, Polar RZ Signaling
Lecture 6 Bipolar RZ-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion), Bipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling
Manchester Code
Examples

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 3

 Digital Modulation Techniques
Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)
Binary Frequency Shifted-Keying (BFSK)
Generation of BFSK
Lecture 7 Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)
Generation of BPSK
Detection of BPSK
Examples

Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

Generation of DPSK
Lecture 8 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Generation of QPSK
Waveform of QPSK
Types of QPSK

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 4

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 5
 Digital Communications
Digital communication systems are becoming increasingly attractive because of the ever-growing demand for data
communication and digital transmission.

Advantages of Digital Communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog communication, such as:
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very difficult.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to maintain the secrecy of
the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 6
Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature
The following are some of the basic digital signal nomenclatures that appears in digital communication literature:
Information source: This is the device producing information to be communicated by means of the DCS. The information source
can be analog or discrete.
Textual message: This is a sequence of characters. For digital transmission as in Figure 1-a, the message will be a sequence of
digits or symbols from a finite symbol set or alphabet.
Character: A character is a member of an alphabet or set of symbols. Characters may be mapped into a sequence of binary digits. See Figure 1-b.
Binary digit (a bit): This is the fundamental information unit for all digital systems. The term bit also is used as a unit of
information content.
Bit stream: This is a sequence of binary digits (ones and zeros). Figure 1-c, show as the message, “HOW” that represented with
the 7-bit ASCII character code.
Symbol (digital message): A symbol is a group of “” bits considered as a unit. This unit known as a message symbol (=1,2,
….,)from a finite symbol set or alphabet (see Figure 1-d). The size of the alphabet, , is , where is the number of bits in the
symbol.
Digital waveform: This is a voltage or current waveform that represents a digital symbol. The waveform characteristics
(amplitude, width, and position for pulses or amplitude, frequency, and phase for sinusoids) allow its identification as one of the
symbols in the finite symbol alphabet. Figure 1-e shows an example of a bandpass digital waveform.
Data rate: This quantity in bits per second (bits/s) is given by bits/s, where bits identify a symbol from an -symbol alphabet, is
the -bit symbol duration, and is the – ray signaling, each symbol in an alphabet can be related to a unique sequence of -bit.

Communication Lectures / 2nd Lecture

Term 07/20/2023 7
Figure 1. Nomenclature examples. (a) Textual messages. (b) Characters. (c) Bit stream (7-bit ASCll). (d) Symbols (=1,2,
….,), . (e) Bandpass digital waveform (=1,2,….,).
Communication Lectures / 2nd Lecture
07/20/2023 8
Term
Comparison between digital signals and analog signals:
  Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal which represents Digital signals are discrete time signals generated by digital
physical measurements. modulation.

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Representation Uses continuous range of values to represent Uses discrete or discontinuous values to represent information
information
Example Human voice in air, analog electronic devices. Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital electronic devices.

Technology Analog technology records waveforms as they are. Samples analog waveforms into a limited set of numbers and
records them.
Response to Noise More likely to get affected reducing accuracy Less affected since noise response are analog in nature

Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in implementation.

Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for Best suited for Computing and digital electronics.
audio and video transmission.

Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be done in real time and There is no guarantee that digital signal processing can be done in
consumes less bandwidth. real time and consumes more bandwidth to carry out the same
information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital instrument draws only negligible power

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 9
07/20/2023
 Lecture 2
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 10
Performance of Digital Communication System
The performance of digital communication can discuss through two elements; the Effectiveness and the Reliability.
1) Effectiveness (validity)
To explain the Effectiveness, we must illustrate two important things, the Transmission Rate and the Bandwidth.
Transmission Rate: The information is conveyed (transmitted) by a change in values of the signal in time. Since the frequency
of a signal is a direct measure of the rate of change in values of the signal, the more the frequency of a signal, more is the
achievable data rate or information transfer rate.
 Information Transmission Rate: measured in bits per second (bps)
 Symbol Transmission Rate: measured in symbols per second or Bauds (Bauds)
, , # bits
Example 1: If we transmit a message consisting of seven symbols in one second {Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Cyan, Blue,
Purple}, {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110} calculate the information transmission rate for this transmit process?
Sol: Each symbol represent by 3 bits, so M=23, =7 Bauds
Information transmission rate = 7×3=21 bps
Lecture
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Bandwidth Efficiency: It is known as spectral or spectrum efficiency, refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over
a given bandwidth in a specific communication system. The bandwidth efficiency () of a digital communication system is
measured in bit/s/Hz. Also, the bandwidth efficiency () measured in Bauds/Hz. As an example, the transmission technique that
using one kilohertz of bandwidth to transmit 1,000 bits per second has a modulation efficiency of 1 (bit/s)/Hz.
Measured in bps/Hz

Measured in Bauds/Hz
Table1. the theoretical bandwidth
efficiency limits for the main modulation
Example: The TDMA version of the North American Digital Cellular (NADC)
Modulation types
Theoretical bandwidth
system (π/4 DQPSK based system), achieves a 48 Kbits-per second data rate over a
format efficiency limits
30 kHz bandwidth or 1.6 bits per second per Hz, calculate the bandwidth efficiency MSK 1 bit/second/Hz
and compare it with the value in table1? BPSK 1 bit/second/Hz
QPSK 2 bit/second/Hz
Sol: 8PSK 3 bit/second/Hz
We can see that the theoretical efficiency would be two bits per second per Hz and in 16 QAM 4 bit/second/Hz
32 QAM 5 bit/second/Hz
practice, it is 1.6 bits per second per Hz.
64 QAM 6 bit/second/Hz
256 QAM 8 bits/second/Hz

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Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 12
2) Reliability
The reliability of the digital system is defined as the probability of making the correct decision at the output of the system when
a digit enters the system. The reliability of any communication system depends on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) calculation or
on the Bit/Symbol Error Rate (BER, SER) (Probability of Error).
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N): is a measure used in communication systems to compare the level of the desired signal to
the level of background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels.

Bit/Symbol Error Rate (BER, SER) or Probability of Error: It is the number of bit errors per unit time. The BER is the number
of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. In digital transmission, the number of
bit errors is the number of received bits of a data stream over a communication channel that has been altered due to noise,
interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.
BER
SER

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 13
07/20/2023
 Lecture 3
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 14
Communication System Models
The communication systems are classified into several types according to signals and its transmission methods during this
systems.
1. Analog communication systems, Figure 2 show us an example of such system.
Figure 2. Analog Passband
Communication Systems

2. Digital Communication Systems, Figure 3 & 4 show us examples of such system.

Figure 3. Digital Baseband
Communication Systems

Figure 4. Digital Passband

Communication Systems

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 15
07/20/2023
3. Digital Transmission of Analog Signals (For instance: Digital TV), as shown in Figure 5.

Analog A/D Digital Digital D/A Analog Figure 5. Digital Transmission

Signals Converter Signals Communications Converter Signals
of Analog Signals

4. Analog Transmission of Digital Signals (For instance: Modem), as shown in Figure 6.

Digital Analog Analog A/D Digital Figure 6. Analog Transmission

D/A
Signals Converter Signals Communications Converter Signals of Digital Signals

Transmission Methods in Communication systems

There are three transmission methods in Communication systems (simplex, half duplex, and full duplex).
Simplex Communications: (only one way) it is a communication channel that sends information in one direction only, or it is a
communications channel that operates in one direction at a time. as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Simplex Communications

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term Lecture 07/20/2023 16

Half Duplex Communications: (may be two-way, but one way at any time) In a half-duplex system, there are still two clearly
defined paths/channels, and each party can communicate with the other but not simultaneously; the communication is one
direction at a time. Figure 8 show the half-duplex system.

Figure 8. Half-Duplex
Communications

Full Duplex Communications: (two-way communications simultaneously). In Figure 9, a full-duplex system, both parties can
communicate with each other simultaneously.

Figure 9. Full Duplex

Communications

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 17
07/20/2023
Multiplexing techniques
In communication, under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in time. For multiple
signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total bandwidth. This is
where the concept of Multiplexing comes!
Multiplexing techniques can be divided into four basic categories:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Figure 10. The
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) FDM technique

3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) ( Optical)
 In FDM the available bandwidth is divided into a number of smaller independent logical channels with each channel having a
small bandwidth. It assigns “frequency ranges” to each “user” or “signal” on a medium. Figure 10 show the FDM technique.
 In TDM, sharing is accomplished by dividing available “transmission time” on a medium/channel among users. Each user of
the channel is allotted a small time interval during which he transmits a message.
TDM can be implemented in two ways: Synchronous TDM and Asynchronous TDM.
Synchronous TDM: The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has
anything to transmit. Time slot 1, for example, is assigned to device 1 alone and cannot be any other device as shown in
Figure 11.
Lecture 07/20/2023
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 18
 Figure 11.
Figure 12. How the Synchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM work

In Synchronous TDM, a frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots. Thus the number of slots in a frame is equal to the
number of input. Figure 12 (A & B) are an example of how the Synchronous TDM work.
Asynchronous TDM: In asynchronous TDM, each slot in a frame is not dedicated to fixing the device. Each slot contains an
index of the device to be sent to a message. Thus, the number of slots in a frame is not necessary to be equal to the number of
input devices. Figure 13 show us the Asynchronous TDM. In asynchronous TDM, a frame contains a fixed number of time
slots. Each slot has an index of which device to receive. Figure 14 (A & B) are examples of how asynchronous TDM works.

Figure 13.

Figure 14. How Asynchronous

Asynchronous TDM work TDM

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 19
07/20/2023
 CDM defined as a form of multiplexing where the transmitter encodes the signal using a pseudo-random sequence. CDM
involves the original digital signal with a spreading code. This spreading has the effect of spreading the spectrum of the
signal greatly and reducing the power over anyone part of the spectrum.
 WDM is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different
wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as
well as multiplication of capacity.
Difference Between FDM and TDM
-FDM divides the channel into multiple, but smaller frequency ranges - TDM divides a channel by allocating a time period for each channel.
to accommodate more users.
- TDM provides much better flexibility compared to FDM.
- FDM proves much better latency compared to TDM. Latency is the time it takes for the data to reach its destination. As TDM allocates time
periods, only one channel can transmit at a given time, and some data would often be delayed, though it’s often only in milliseconds. Since
channels in FDM can transmit at any time, their latencies would be much lower compared to TDM.

- TDM and FDM can be used in tandem (‫الخر‬UU‫د ا‬UU‫ع‬UUU‫د ب‬U‫ح‬U‫ن وا‬, U‫م‬U‫لتزا‬UU‫ا‬UUU‫ي ب‬U‫رادف‬UUU‫)ت‬.
, FDM and TDM are often used in tandem, to create even more
channels in a given frequency range.

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term Lecture 07/20/2023

20
 Lecture 4
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 21
Information & Entropy
Before we can know the relationship between entropy and information, we need to understand what information is? Because the
word "information" is so commonly used, people think it means something like 'knowledge', 'data', or another thing.
Information (I): Its represents how certain we are about the probability of something occurring.
Information, Measured in bits, where is the probability of

Information Properties: The 4 properties is:

1- for
for
3- for ,
4- If statistically independent .
Entropy (H): It is the expected value (average) of the information contained in each message. 'Messages' can be modeled by
any flow of information. In another word, entropy is defined as the average amount of information per source output and is
expressed by:
, bits per symbol
where is number of symbols of the source, symbol: , probability:

Lecture 07/20/2023
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 22
Entropy Properties:
If entropy=0, , for some k.
If entropy=1, for all k.
Maximum Entropy Examples:
2 symbols: probabilities are ½, ½ respectively, , bit/symbol.
2 symbols: probabilities are ¼, ¾ respectively, , bit/symbol.
As shown in Figure 15. If we have a binary source with 0 and 1, with probabilities and, respectively. , the entropy is:

Example : The probability of English letter E is 0.105, determine its information.

Sol: (bit)
Example : The probability of English letter x is 0.002, determine its information.
Sol: (bit)

Figure 15. Entropy versus

probability (two events)

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 23
Example : (a) Calculate the average information in bit/ character for the English language, assuming that each of the 26
characters in the alphabet occurs with equal likelihood. Neglect spaces and punctuation. (b) Since the alphabetic characters do
not appear with equal frequency in the English language (or any other language), the answer to part (a) will represent an upper
bound on average the alphabetic characters occur with the following probabilities: P=0.10: for the letters a,e,o,t
Sol: (a) bit/character P=0.07: for the letters h,I,n,r,s
(b) P=0.02: for the letters c,d,f,l,m,p,u,y
P=0.01: for the letters b,g,j,k,q,v,w,x,z
= 4.17 bit/character.

Example : Three students at a class are trying to speculation (‫خمن‬UU‫ )ي‬a 3-bit binary number. 1st one is told that the number is
even; 2nd one is told that it is not a multiple of 2 (i.e., not 0, 2, 4 or 6); and 3 rd one is told that the number contains exactly two
0's. How much information (in bits) did each player get about the number?
Sol: Information.
The total number of choices is 8 for a 3-bit number (CBA).
1st one is told that the number is even = {000, 010, 100, 110}, so, .
2nd one is told that it is not a multiple of 2 = {001, 011, 101, 111}, so, .
3rd one is told that the number contains exactly two 0's = {001, 010, 100}, so, .

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 24
 Lecture 5
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 25
Modulation Techniques in Telecommunication Systems
In telecommunication systems, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of the carrier signal, with a
modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted. Modulation techniques are divided into two parts
according to a type of signal that dealing with it; analog modulation and digital modulation.
      AM (amplitude modulation)
    Linear DSBSC (double-sideband suppressed-carrier)
  Analog SSB (single-sideband modulation)
  Modulation VSB (vestigial sideband modulation )
Continuous Non-linear FM (frequency modulation)
Modulation PM (phase modulation)

  ASK (amplitude-shift keying)

  FSK (frequency-shift keying)
Digital PSK (phase-shift keying)
Modulation DPSK (differential phase-shift keying)
QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation)
MSK (minimum shift keying), etc.
  Pulse Analog
PAM (pulse-amplitude modulation)
  Modulation PDM (pulse-depth modulation)
  PPM (pulse-position modulation)
Pulse   PCM (pulse-code modulation)
Modulation Pulse Digital DM (∆M) (Delta modulation)
Modulation DPCM (Differential PCM)
ADPCM (Adaptive DPCM) Lecture
∑.∆ (Delta-sigma modulation), etc.
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 26
Pulse Modulation
Pulse modulation schemes allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal with a fixed bit rate, which
can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system.
To transform an analog waveform into a form that is compatible with a digital communication, the following steps are taken:
1. Sampling.
2. Quantization.
3. Encoding.
Figure 16 show us the components of A/D converter in digital transmission of analog signals:

Figure 16. Components of A/D

converter in digital
transmission of analog signals

Concept of Sampling
Sampling is defined as, “The process of measuring the instantaneous values of continuous-time signal in a discrete form.”, or it
is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal.
The sample is a piece of data taken from the whole data which is continuous in the time domain, or it is a value or set of values
at a point in time and/or space.
Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 27
When a source generates an analog signal and if that has to be digitized, having 1s and 0s i.e., High or Low, the signal has to be
discretized in time. This discretization of the analog signal is called as Sampling. Figure 17 indicates a continuous-time signal
and a sampled signal. When is multiplied by a periodic impulse train, the sampled signal is obtained.
Sampling Rate: To discretize the signals, the gap between the samples should be fixed. That gap can be termed as a sampling
period.

where, is the sampling time, and is the sampling frequency or the sampling rate.

Fig.17
The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken per second, or for a finite set of values.
Nyquist Rate: Suppose that a signal is band-limited with no frequency components higher than Hertz. That means, is the
highest frequency. For such a signal, for effective reproduction of the original signal, the sampling rate should be twice the
highest frequency.
(This rate of sampling is called as Nyquist rate)
where is the highest frequency.

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 28
The sampling theorem states that “a signal can be exactly reproduced if it is sampled at the rate which is greater than twice
the maximum frequency.”
To understand sampling theorem, let us consider a band-limited signal, i.e., a signal whose value is non-zero between some
and Hertz. Such a signal is represented as for .
For the signal, the band-limited signal in frequency domain, can be represented as shown in Figure 18.
If the signal is sampled above the Nyquist rate, the original signal can be recovered, and if it is sampled below the Nyquist
rate, the signal cannot be recovered.
Figure 19 shows the Fourier transform of a signal. Here, the information is reproduced without any loss. There is no mixing up
and hence recovery is possible.
Figure 20 show us what happens if the sampling rate is equal to twice the highest frequency (). The information is replaced
without any loss. Hence, this is also a good sampling rate.
Fig.18 Fig.19 Fig.20

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 29
Now, let us look at the condition, the resultant pattern will look like the Figure 21.
We can observe from the above pattern in Figure 21 that the overlapping of information is done, which leads to mixing up and
loss of information. This unwanted phenomenon of overlapping is called as Aliasing.
Fig.21
Concept of Quantization
The method of sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal and then these
points are joined to round off the value to a near stabilized value. Such a process is
called as Quantization.
Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of
levels, which means converting a continuous amplitude sample into a discrete-time Fig.22
signal. Figure 22 shows how an analog signal gets quantized. The line (like a stair)
represents the quantized signal while another line represents the analog signal.
Types of Quantization
There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Nonuniform
Quantization. The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly
spaced is termed as a Uniform Quantization. The type of quantization in which the
quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation between them is logarithmic, is
termed as a Non-uniform Quantization. Figure 23 show the uniform quantization and
non-uniform quantization.

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Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 30
There are two types of uniform quantization. They are the Mid- Fig.23
Rise type and Mid-Tread type.
 The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the
middle of a raising part of the stair-case like a graph. The
quantization levels in this type are even in number. Figure 24
show that.
 The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the
middle of a thread of the stair-case like a graph. The
quantization levels in this type are odd in number. Figure 24
show that.
 Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizer are
symmetric about the origin.

Fig.24

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 31
Example : The information in an analog waveform, with maximum frequency = 3 kHz, is to be transmitted over an M-ary
PAM system, where the number of pulse levels is M = 16. The quantization distortion is specified not to exceed ±1% of the
peak-to-peak analog signal.
a) What is the minimum number of bits/sample, or bits/PCM word that should be used in digitizing the analog waveform?
We can use the formula bit, to calculate the number of bits per sample.
. Therefore, use 6 bits/sample to meet the distortion requirement.

b) What is the minimum required sampling rate, and what is the resulting bit transmission rate?
Samples/second.
From part (a), each sample will give rise to a PCM word composed of 6 bits. Therefore, the bit transmission rate is bps
or bits/second.

c) What is the PAM pulse or symbol transmission rate?

Since multilevel pulses are to be used with levels, then bits/symbol. Therefore, the bit stream will be partitioned into
groups of 4 bits to form the new 16-level PAM digits, and the resulting symbol transmission rate is symbols/second.

d) If the transmission bandwidth (including filtering) equals 12 kHz, determine the bandwidth efficiency for this system?
Bandwidth efficiency is described by data throughput per hertz.
.

Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 32
 Lecture 6
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 33
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Waveform (Line coding)
Data as well as signals that represents data can either be digital or analog. Line coding is the process of converting digital data
to digital signals. By this technique we converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. There are several types of PCM
waveforms that are described and illustrated below;

Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling: The advantage of this type is to need for one
power supply to generate the signals. From Figure 25, in this type of signaling we can represent bit 1
as a high level (+5V) or in low level (-V) and 0 bit in base level. T b is a time of sending one bit and T s is Fig.25
the duration of one symbol.

Unipolar RZ (Return-to-Zero) Signaling: in this type of signaling, the signal return to zero Fig.26
after pulse duration (T) of Tb time (0˂T˂Tb). Figure 26. Show the unipolar RZ. T: pulse
duration, and Tb is a time of sending one bit.

Polar NRZ Signaling: The disadvantage of this type is to need for two power supply to
generate the signals. In Figure 27. The representation of bit 1 comes from a high level (+5V)
and bit 0 from a low level (-5V), so this type needs to two signal generators.

Fig.27
Lecture
Communication Lectures / 2nd Term 07/20/2023 34
Polar RZ Signaling: in this type of signaling, the signal return to zero after pulse duration (T) of
Fig.28
Tb time (0˂T˂Tb). Bit 1 represents in high level (+5V) and bit 0 represent in low level (-5V).
Figure 28. Show the bipolar RZ.
Bipolar RZ-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion): The Bipolar RZ-AMI is a signaling scheme used in telephone
systems. The ones are represented by equal-amplitude alternating pulses (+5V) and (-5V). The zeros are
represented by the absence of pulses(base level). This type of signaling needs two power supplies and has three
levels of voltage (+, 0,-) (Pseudo-ternary signaling). Figure 29, show RZ-AMI representation.

Bipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) signaling: In this type of signaling there

are three groups; NRZ-L (L refer to level), NRZ-M (M refer to mark), and NRZ-
S (S refer to space). NRZ-L is used in digital logic circuits. A binary one is Fig.29
represented by one voltage level and a binary zero is represented by another
voltage level. There is a change in level whenever the data change from a one to Fig.30
a zero or from a zero to a one. With NRZ-M, the one, or mark, is represented by
a change in level, and the zero, or space, is represented by no change in level.
NRZ-S is the complemented of NRZ-M: A one is represented by no change in
level, and a zero is represented by a change in level. Figure 30 show all the
types NRZ-L, NRZ-M, and NRZ-S.

Communication Lectures / 2nd Term

Lecture 35
07/20/2023
Manchester Code: Manchester coding (also known as phase encoding, or PE) Fig.31

is a PCM waveform in which the encoding of each data bit is either low then
high, or high then low, of equal time as shown in Figure 31.

Example : Draw the waveforms of PCM in term of Unipolar RZ, Polar RZ, and
Bipolar RZ-AMI for the message 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 with high-level voltage
(+V) and a low-level voltage (-V).

Example : For the message 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1, draw the waveforms of PCM in term of

Unipolar NRZ, Bipolar NRZ-L, Unipolar RZ, Bipolar RZ-AMI, and Manchester,
with high-level (+V) and low-level (-V) voltages.

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 Lecture 7
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Digital Modulation Techniques
Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker system availability with great quality
communication. There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their combinations, depending upon the need.
 Binary: ASK, FSK, PSK, DPSK, and QPSK.
 M-ary: ASK, FSK, PSK, and DPSK.

Binary Amplitude-Shift Keying (BASK)

BASK is a form of amplitude modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. In an ASK
system, the binary symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a fixed-amplitude carrier wave and fixed frequency for a bit
duration of seconds. If the signal value is 1 then the carrier signal will be transmitted; otherwise, a signal value of 0 will be
transmitted.

where is the modulated signal, is transmitted signal energy per bit, is bit duration.
The average transmitted signal energy is (the two binary symbols must by equiprobable)

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Binary Frequency Shifted-Keying (BFSK)
FSK is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a
carrier signal. BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information. With this scheme, the "1" is
called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency.

For some fixed integer,

Sunde’s BFSK: When the frequencies and are chosen in such a way that they differ from each other by an amount equal to the
reciprocal of the bit duration.

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Generation of BFSK: Figure 32 show the generation of BFSK modulation.
Example : Draw the Sunde’s BFSK waveform for the input
binary sequence 0011011001 for a bit duration.
Sol: If for and for.

Fig.32

Example : Draw the Sunde’s BFSK waveform for the input binary
sequence 101 for a bit duration.
Sol: If for and for.

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Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK)
BPSK (also sometimes called PRK, phase reversal keying, or 2PSK) is the simplest form of phase shift keying (PSK). It uses
two phases which are separated by 180° and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the
constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0° and 180°.
,

Generation of BPSK: Figure 33 show the generation of BPSK modulation.

Fig.33

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Detection of BPSK: compare to the phase of carrier

Examples : BPSK

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 Lecture 8
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Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
The phase of the modulated signal is shifted relative to the previous signal element. No reference signal is considered here. The
signal phase follows the high or low state of the previous element. This DPSK technique doesn’t need a reference oscillator.
Figure 34 represents the model waveform of DPSK. It is seen from Figure 34 that, if the data bit is Low i.e., 0, then the phase of the
signal is not reversed, but continued as it was. If the data is a High i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is reversed, as with NRZI, invert on 1 (a
form of differential encoding).
Generation of DPSK: BDPSK= Differential Code’s
BPSK. To draw waveform of BPSK by compared to its
own previous phase.
Fig.34

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Example : Draw the BDPSK waveform for the input binary sequence 101100?
Sol:

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) 

QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, which sends
two bits of digital information at a time, called as bigits. Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream,
it converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users. The purpose of
QPSK is to increase the bandwidth efficiency.

The signal is:

”

where is the signal energy per symbol and is the symbol duration.

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Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding shown in Fig 35. Each
adjacent symbol only differs by 1 bit.

Generation of QPSK: Fig.35

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Waveform of QPSK: to draw the waveform of QPSK, we can use the table below:
Decimal MSB-LSB for binary Triangle function Value of angle
number
0 00 -cos -sin
1 01 -cos sin
2 10 cos -sin
3 11 cos sin

The general form of QPSK waveform

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Example : Draw the QPSK waveform for the input binary sequence 011011001001?
Sol:

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Types of QPSK:
1- Offset QPSK (OQPSK): Offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant of phase-shift keying modulation using
4 different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called staggered quadrature phase-shift keying (SQPSK). Taking
four
values of the phase (2 bits) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow the phase of the signal to jump by as much as
180°at a time. The phase transitions are limited to 90 o, the transitions on the (I and Q) channels are staggered. This yields much
lower amplitude fluctuations than non-offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice. Figure 36 show the constellation of
OQPSK. Signal doesn't cross zero, because only one bit of the symbol is changed at a time.
2- π/4–QPSK: This variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45° (π/4 radians, hence the name)
with respect to one another. Usually, either, the even or odd symbols are used to select points from one of the constellations and
the other symbols select points from the other constellation. This also reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180°, but
only to a maximum of 135° and so the amplitude fluctuations of π/4–QPSK are between OQPSK and non-offset QPSK. In π/4
QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces
the lowest envelope variations. In Figure 37 show dual constellation diagram for π/4-QPSK. This shows the two separate constellations with
Fig 37 Fig 36
identical Gray coding but rotated by 45° with respect to each other.

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References
1) John G. Proakis, Masoud Salehi, “Digital Communication”, McGraw-Hill, 5 th Edition, 2008.
2) A. Bruce Carlson, Paul B. Crilly, Janet C. Rutledge, “COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: An Introduction to Signals and
Noise in Electrical Communication”, McGraw-Hill,4th Edition, 2002.

3) Upamanyu Madhow, “Introduction to Communication Systems”, University of California, 2014.

4) BERNARD SKLAR, “Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications”, Prentice Hall Communications

Engineering, University of California, 2nd Edition, 2001.

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