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Bith212 Unit 3 Proofs

This document discusses different proof methods in mathematics including direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by contraposition, and proof by mathematical induction. It provides examples of how to use each method to prove various statements about integers, such as proving that the sum of two odd integers is even using a direct proof, and proving that if the square of an integer n is even, then n is even using proof by contradiction. Exercises are provided for the reader to practice applying these proof techniques.

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24 views18 pages

Bith212 Unit 3 Proofs

This document discusses different proof methods in mathematics including direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by contraposition, and proof by mathematical induction. It provides examples of how to use each method to prove various statements about integers, such as proving that the sum of two odd integers is even using a direct proof, and proving that if the square of an integer n is even, then n is even using proof by contradiction. Exercises are provided for the reader to practice applying these proof techniques.

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Antonate
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PROOFS

OBJECTIVES

 By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. choose a type of proof for a problem


2. explain how direct proofs are used
3. use proof by contradiction
4. describe how to use proof by contra-positive
5. discuss other proofs provided in this unit
METHODS OF PROOFS
DIRECT PROOF:

 The implication p -> q can be proved by showing that if p is true,


the q must also be true. This shows that the combination p true and
q false never occurs.
SOME BASICS
 1. An integer n is even if, and only if, n = 2k for some integer k.
 2. An integer n is odd if, and only if, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
 3. An integer n is prime if, and only if, n > 1 and for all positive integers r
and s, if n = r·s, then r = 1 or s = 1.
 4. An integer n > 1 is composite if, and only if, n = r·s for some positive
integers r and s with r ≠ 1 and s ≠ 1.
 5. A real number r is rational if, and only if, r=a/b for some integers a and
b with b ≠ 0.
 6. If n and d are integers and d ≠ 0, then d divides n, written d|n if, and
only if, n = d.k
 for some integers k.
 7. An integer n is called a perfect square if, and only if, n = for some
integer k.
EXAMPLES
 1.Prove that the sum of two odd integers is even.
 SOLUTION:
 Let m and n be two odd integers. Then by definition of odd numbers

 m = 2k + 1 for some k  Z

 n = 2l + 1 for some l  Z

 Now m + n = (2k + 1) + (2l + 1)


 = 2k + 2l + 2
 = 2 (k + l + 1)

 = 2r where r = (k + l + 1)  Z

 Hence m + n is even.
EXAMPLES
 2.Prove that if n is any even integer, then = 1
 SOLUTION: Suppose n is an even integer. Then n = 2k for some integer k.
 Now=
=
= = 1 (proved)
 3.Prove that the square of an even integer is even.
 SOLUTION: Suppose n is an even integer. Then n = 2k
 Now square of n =
=
=
= 2· = 2·p where p =  Z
Hence, n2 is even. (proved)
PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
 A proof by contradiction is based on the fact that either a statement
is true or it is false but not both.
 Hence the supposition, that the statement to be proved is false,
leads logically to a contradiction, then the supposition must be
false.
 Hence the given statement must be true.
  Many theorems in mathematics are conditional statements (p→q).
 The negation of the implication p → q is
 (p  ~q)
 Thus to prove an implication p→q by contradiction method we
suppose that the condition p and the negation of the conclusion q,
i.e., (p  ~q) is true and ultimately arrive at a contradiction.
PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

 Proof by contradiction, may be summarized as


follows:
 1. Suppose the statement to be proved is false.
 2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a
contradiction.
 3. Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.
EXAMPLE
 Give a proof by contradiction for the statement:
 “If n2 is an even integer then n is an even integer.”
 PROOF:
• Suppose n2 is an even integer and n is not even, so that n is
odd.
• Hencen = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
• Now n2 = (2k + 1) 2
 = 4k2 + 4k + 1
 = 2·(2k2 + 2k) + 1
 = 2r + 1 where r = (2k2 + 2k) Z
• This shows that n2 is odd, which is a contradiction to our
supposition that n2 is even.
• Hence the given statement is true.
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE

 1. Prove by contradiction method, the statement:


If n and m are odd integers, then n + m is an even
integer.

 2. Prove that 2 is irrational.


PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITION:
 A proof by contraposition is based on the logical equivalence
between a statement and its contrapositive.
 Therefore, the implication p→ q can be proved by showing that its
contrapositive ~ q → ~ p is true.
 The contrapositive is usually proved directly.
 The method of proof by contrapositive may be summarized as:
 1. Express the statement in the form if p then q.
 2. Rewrite this statement in the contrapositive form
if not q then not p.
 3. Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.
EXAMPLE
 Prove that for all integers n, if n2 is even then n is even.
 PROOF:
 The contrapositive of the given statement is:
 “if n is not even (odd) then n2 is not even (odd)”
 We prove this contrapositive statement directly.
 Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for some k Z
 Now n2 = (2k+1) 2= 4k2 + 4k + 1
 = 2·(2k2 + 2k) + 1
 = 2·r + 1 where r = 2k2 + 2k Z
 Hence n2 is odd. Thus the contrapositive statement is true and so the
given statement is true.
 EXERCISE:
  Prove that if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
 Let P(n) be a propositional function defined for all positive
integers n.
 P(n) is true for every positive integer n if
 1.Basis Step:
 The proposition P(1) is true.
 2.Inductive Step:
 If P(k) is true then P(k + 1) is true for all integers k
 1.
EXAMPLE

 Use mathematical induction to prove that:


 Solution
 Let p(n) :
 1. Basis step
 P(1) is true.
 For n = 1, left hand side of P(1) is the sum of all the
successive integers starting at 1 and ending at 1, so LHS = 1
and RHS is:
 so the proposition is true for n = 1.
(Cnt)

 2. Inductive Step: Suppose P(k) is true for,


some integers k  1.
 (1)
 To prove P(k + 1) is true. That is,

 (2)
(Cnt)
 Consider L.H.S of (2)

 Hence by principle of Mathematical Induction the given


result is true for all integers greater or equal to 1.
Exercise for Practice
 1.Use mathematical induction to prove that
 1+3+5+…+(2n -1) = n2 for all integers n
1.
 2. Prove by mathematical induction
for all
integers n>=1
 3. Prove by induction

all integers n>=1

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