Collecting

qualitative data
Lecture 7

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Learning objectives

• After studying this topic, you should be able to

– Discuss the main issues in collecting qualitative data
– Describe and apply methods based on interviews
– Describe and apply methods based on diaries
– Describe and apply methods based on observation
– Compare strengths and weaknesses of methods
• Independent study
– Study Chapter 7
– Other activities as set

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Introduction

• It is the research data rather than the method of collection that

can be described as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative
(non-numerical)
– Data can also be described as primary data (generated from an
original source) or secondary data (existing data)
• Interpretivists are interested in collecting qualitative data,
which they will analyse using interpretive methods
• Positivists sometimes collect some qualitative data, which they
usually quantify before analysing it using statistical methods
• You need to describe and justify your method(s) in your
methodology chapter

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Review of the research process

Choose a topic and search the literature

Review the literature and define the research

question(s)

Design the research and write the proposal

Collect the research data

Analyse and interpret the research data

Write the dissertation or thesis

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Main issues in collecting qualitative data

• Qualitative data are normally transient (short-lived) and

can be understood only within context
• In an interpretivist study, you need to collect some
contextual data first (eg time and location; legal, social,
political and economic influences)
– You will find most of the contextualizing data in the
literature
– Do not ignore statistics simply because they are quantitative
• Understanding the context will aid your interpretation of
the data

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Main issues in collecting qualitative data

• Qualitative data are normally transient and understood only

within context, and are associated with an interpretivist
methodology this usually leads to findings with a high degree
of validity
– Validity is the extent to which the findings reflect the
phenomena under study
• On the other hand, quantitative data are normally precise, and
can be captured at various points in time and in different
contexts, and in a positivist methodology this usually leads to
results with a high degree of reliability
– Reliability refers to the accuracy and precision of the
measurement and absence of differences in the results if the
research were repeated
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Overview of data collection in an interpretivist study

Identify a sample or case(s)

Choose data collection methods(s)

Determine what data will be collected and design any

questions

Conduct pilot study and modify methods as necessary

Collect the research data

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Selecting a sample in an interpretivist study

• You may need to identify a sampling frame

– A sampling frame is a record of the population
from which a sample can be drawn
– A population is a body of people or collection of items
under consideration for statistical purposes
– A sample is a subset of a population
• Under an interpretivist paradigm, you do not need to
select a random sample because you will not analyse
your research data statistically with a view to
generalizing from the sample to the population

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Maim methods for selecting a non-random sample

• Snowball sampling (networking) is used when it is essential to

include people with experience of the phenomenon under study
– Eg You are investigating how people handle with redundancy and
have found some suitable participants. You ask them if they can
introduce you to others to extend your sample
• Judgemental (purposive) sampling is a method where the
researcher chooses participants with experience of the
phenomenon under study at the start and does not pursue other
contacts that may arise
• Natural (convenience) sampling occurs when the researcher has
little influence on the composition of the sample
– Eg Only particular people are involved in the phenomenon under
study or only certain people are available at the time of the study
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Interviews

• An interview is ‘a method for collecting primary data in

which a sample of interviewees are asked questions to
find out what they think, do or feel’ (Collis and Hussey,
2014, p. 133)
– Interpretivists prefer unstructured interviews (questions not
planned in advance) and open questions
– Positivists prefer structured interviews with closed questions
• Can be conducted with individuals or groups, using
face-to-face, telephone or online methods such as
Skype

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Exercise 1
Closed and open questions
• What is the difference between a closed question and an
open question?

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Solution 1
Closed and open questions
• A closed question is one that requires a ‘yes’ or ‘no’
answer or a very brief factual answer, or requires the
respondent to choose from a list of predetermined
answers.
• An open question is one that cannot be answered with a
simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or a very brief factual answer, but
requires a longer, developed answer

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Interviews - Advantages and problems

• Advantages
– You can ask complex questions and use probes
• Potential problems
– Access to participants (interpretivists) or to a
representative sample (positivists)
– Cost (time, expense) and risk (personal security)
– Permission to record data (audio, video, notes)
– Concerns about confidentiality/anonymity
– Interviewee wearing more than one hat
– Interviewer bias (no approval/disapproval)
– Ensuring stimulus equivalence (positivists)
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Critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954)

• Interviews are not merely idle conversations – you are

trying to get in-depth and authentic knowledge of
people’s experiences
• One way to do this is to use critical incident technique
which is ‘a method for collecting data about a defined
activity or event based on the participant’s recollections
of key facts’ (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p. 139)
– Interpretivists use it in unstructured interviews
– Positivists use it in structured interviews or questionnaires

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Example of critical incident technique
Research problem: Access to finance
• Please think about an occasion when the
business was seeking finance
– How much was required and for what purpose?
– Can you tell me what happened from the
beginning?
• Probes
– Did you seek any advice? If so, at what stage, from
whom and what advice did you receive?
– How did you select the potential source(s) of
finance?
– What information were you asked to supply? 15
Exercise 2
Critical incident technique
• The advantages of critical incident technique are
– It is simple to use
– It creates focus as interviewee talks about issues in the
context of his or her experience and discourages
interviewee from talking about hypothetical situations
• What are the potential problems of using critical incident
technique?

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Solution 2
Critical incident technique
• Potential problems
– Interviewee’s reason for choosing the event is not
known
– Important facts may have been forgotten
– Post-rationalisation may have taken place (the
interviewee recounts the events with a degree of
logic and coherence that did not exist at the time)

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Focus groups

• A focus group is ‘a method for collecting data whereby

selected participants discuss their reactions and feelings
about a product, service, situation or concept, under the
guidance of a group leader (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p.
141)
– The group leader facilitates discussion of a prepared list of
topics using broad open questions, visual displays
– The assistant records what is said and by whom (audio,
video, notes)

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Exercise 3
Focus groups
• The advantage of focus groups is that they combine
interviewing and observation and can be used to
– Develop knowledge of a new phenomenon
– Generate propositions from the issues that emerge
– Develop questions for a survey
– Obtain feedback on the findings of research in which the
focus group members participated
• What are the potential problems?

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Solution 3
Focus groups
• Potential problems
– Selecting a range of participants
– Choosing a venue
– Ensuring issues are covered in sufficient depth
– Recording
– Cost/time

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Protocol analysis (Clarkson, 1962)

• Protocol analysis is ‘a method for collecting

data used to identify a practitioner’s mental
processes in solving a problem in a particular
situation, including the logic and methods
used’ (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p. 144)
– The researcher gives a written problem to a
practitioner who is experienced in that field
– As the practitioner addresses the problem, he or
she gives verbal explanations which are recorded
by the researcher
– A protocol is a transcript of the verbalization 21
Types of protocol

Protocol

Retrospective verbalization Concurrent verbalization

(after the task) (during the task)

Directed reports Think-aloud protocol

(on specific behaviour) (all thoughts)

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Exercise 4
Protocol analysis
• The advantages of protocol analysis are
– It reduces the risk of interviewer bias
– It reduces the possibility of omitting potentially
important areas or aspects
– The technique is open-ended and flexible
• What are the potential problems?

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Solution 4
Protocol analysis
• Potential problems
– Time-consuming and labour intensive (Bolton,
1991)
– Retrospective verbalization does not represent a
real-time situation, but rather an action replay
(Day, 1986)
– Concurrent verbalization may be too time-
consuming as the researcher must maintain a
continuous presence

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Diary methods

• A diary is ‘a method of collecting written data where

selected participants are asked to record relevant
information in diary forms or booklets over a specified
period of time (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p. 146)
• Three types
– A log is a detailed diary where the participant records time spent
on activities (preferred by positivists)
– A diary is where the participant keeps a descriptive record of day-
to-day life (eg activities, thoughts, feelings)
– A diary-interview is where detailed questions are developed from
the diary and used as the basis of an in-depth interview with the
diarist
(Plummer, 1983)
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Exercise 5
Diary methods
• The advantages of diary methods are
– Greater coverage of types and locations of
participants
– Participants classify their activities, rather than an
observer who may not have the technical
knowledge
– All time can be recorded, rather than only when
an observer is present
• What are the potential problems?

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Solution 5
Diary methods
• The potential problems of diary methods are
– Selecting participants who can express themselves
well
– Providing encouragement over the record-keeping
period
– Risk of recording bias by participants
– Comparison may be difficult if sample is not
homogenous

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Observation

• Observation is ‘a method for collecting data

used in a laboratory or natural setting to
observe and record people’s actions and
behaviour’ (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p. 148)
• Two types
– Non-participant observation – the researcher is
not involved
– Participant observation – the researcher is fully
involved

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Requirements for participant observation

• The phenomenon under study is observable

within an everyday setting and the researcher
has access to an appropriate setting
• The phenomenon is sufficiently limited in size
and location to be studied as a case
• The research questions are appropriate for a
case study
• The research problem can be investigated by
collecting qualitative data from direct
observation and other means relevant to the 29
Exercise 6
Observation methods
• Main factors to be considered
– The purpose of the research
– The cost of the research
– The extent to which access can be gained
– The extent to which the researcher would be
comfortable in the role
– The amount of time the researcher has available
• What are the potential problems?

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Solution 6
Observation methods
• The potential problems are
– Access, ethics, cost/time, how to record the data
– Demand characteristics (the effect of researcher’s
presence)
– Researcher bias (eg one observer interprets action
differently from a co-researcher)

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Conclusions

• Do not collect any data until your proposal has been

approved and you have determined your method of analysis
• All researchers must consider the ethical issues
– Inform the participants of the purpose of the research
– Where practicable, obtain their written consent to take part and
their agreement to being recorded.
• You must use rigorous methods for recording research data
that also provide evidence of the source
– Note-taking allows you to jot down the main points
– Audio or video recording leaves you free to concentrate on
making notes on attitude, behaviour and body language
• Now read Chapter 7

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