HUMAN MEMORY

Memory (a particular act of recall or recollection)

Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. In psychology, memory is studied as a
complex system that involves several stages.
1. The first stage is called encoding, which is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored
in the brain. Encoding can be done through various methods such as repetition, association, elaboration, and
visualization.
2. The second stage is storage, which refers to the retention of encoded information over time. Memories can be
stored temporarily in the short-term memory or long-term memory for more permanent storage.
3. The third stage is retrieval, which is the process of accessing and bringing back stored memories when needed.
Retrieval can be influenced by various factors such as context, emotions, and cues.
 The Process of Memorizing
(The Three Stage of Memory)

Zimbardo, Atkinson, and Hilgards (1987), explain that memory requires

1.Sensory Memory: This is the initial stage of memory where information is taken in through our senses. It has a
very short duration (a few seconds) and a large capacity. Examples include the sight of a sunset or the sound of a
bird singing.
2.Short-Term Memory (STM): This is also known as working memory and it holds information for a brief period
of time (typically 15-30 seconds). STM has a limited capacity and can hold around 7 items of information at once.
Examples include remembering a phone number while dialing it or holding a conversation with someone.
3.Long-Term Memory (LTM): This is where information is stored for longer periods of time, ranging from hours
to decades. LTM has unlimited capacity and can store vast amounts of information. Examples include remembering
your childhood home or recalling a favorite song from years ago.
 Sensory memory

Sensory memory refers to the initial stage of information processing where sensory information from the environment is
briefly registered in our sensory systems. There are generally two types of sensory memory:
1.Iconic Memory: This type of sensory memory is related to visual information. It refers to the brief storage of visual
images or icons that can last for about 0.5 to 1 second. Iconic memory allows us to retain visual information long enough to
recognize objects, track motion, and perceive continuity in the visual world. When you read a sentence in a book and close
your eyes, you can still see the words on the page in your mind's eye. This is also an example of iconic memory.
2.Echoic Memory: This type of sensory memory is related to auditory information. It refers to the brief storage of sound or
auditory information that can last for about 3 to 4 seconds. Echoic memory allows us to retain auditory information long
enough to understand speech, follow a conversation, and distinguish between different sounds. When someone speaks to
you, the sound waves enter your ears and create a brief echoic memory that allows you to process what was said even after
the sound has stopped.
 SHORT TERM MEMORY

1.STM is a type of memory system that temporarily stores information for a brief period of time, typically ranging from a few
seconds to a minute or two.
2.It has a limited capacity and can hold only a small amount of information at once, usually around 7 plus or minus 2 items.
3.STM requires active attention and rehearsal to maintain its contents and prevent forgetting, as it is vulnerable to interference
and decay.
4.The information stored in STM is often used immediately, such as when following directions or solving problems.
Let's say you're trying to remember a phone number that someone just told you. As soon as you hear the number, it is temporarily
stored in your STM. Here are some points regarding how STM works in this scenario:
1.STM has a limited capacity: You can only hold a few pieces of information in your STM at once. In this case, you need to
remember a series of 10 digits, which exceeds the typical capacity of STM.
2.Maintenance rehearsal is required to keep information in STM: To prevent forgetting, you might repeat the phone number to
yourself several times, or try to associate it with something else, like a familiar date or pattern of numbers.
3.STM is vulnerable to interference and decay: If you get distracted by something else or receive another piece of information
to remember, such as an address or name, the phone number might be overwritten or forgotten.
4.STM is temporary: Unless you transfer the phone number to long-term memory storage by repeating it multiple times or
actively using it, the information will likely fade from your STM within a few seconds or minutes.
Overall, STM plays a critical role in our everyday lives, allowing us to hold onto important information for brief periods of time
and use it to complete tasks or make decisions. However, its limitations and vulnerabilities also highlight the importance of
effective memory strategies and learning techniques that can help reinforce and consolidate information in long-term memory for
future use.
 Long Term memory

1.LTM refers to the long-term storage and retrieval of information in the brain that lasts for an extended period, from days to
years.
2.Encoding: Information is encoded into LTM through various processes such as rehearsal, elaboration, and association. For
example, when learning a new language, rehearsing the words and associating them with images or emotions can help encode
the information into LTM.
3.Capacity: The capacity of LTM is virtually unlimited, and it can hold vast amounts of information. For instance, we can
remember significant life events, childhood memories, and complex concepts learned in school, all stored in LTM.
4.Retrieval: Retrieval of information from LTM occurs through recall and recognition. Recall involves retrieving information
without any cues or prompts, while recognition involves identifying information after being provided with cues or prompts. An
example of recall is remembering a friend's phone number without looking at your contact list, while recognizing a song on the
radio is an example of recognition.
 Types of long term memory

There are generally considered to be two types of long-term memory: declarative (explicit) and non-declarative (implicit)
memory.
1.Declarative Memory: This type of memory refers to memories that can be consciously recalled, such as facts or events. There
are two subtypes of declarative memory: episodic memory (recollection of personal experiences) and semantic memory
(knowledge of facts, concepts, and principles).
2.Non-Declarative Memory: This type of memory refers to skills and habits that are learned through repetition and practice.
Non-declarative memory includes procedural memory (memory for how to perform specific tasks), priming (the ability of prior
exposure to a stimulus to influence response to subsequent exposures), and classical conditioning (associations between stimuli
and responses).
 Retrieval of long term memory

Recalling or retrieving long-term memory refers to the process of bringing previously stored memories back into conscious
awareness. There are different types of long-term memory, including:
1.Explicit or Declarative Memory: This type of memory involves conscious effort to remember and recall information. It is furthe
divided into two subtypes:
•Episodic Memory: It refers to personal events that were experienced at a particular time and place. For example, remembering you
first day of school or a vacation you went on.
•Semantic Memory: It refers to general knowledge about the world, such as facts, concepts, and ideas. For example, knowing that
Paris is the capital of France, or that water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen.
2.Implicit or Non-Declarative Memory: This type of memory is formed unconsciously and does not require conscious effort to
retrieve. It is further divided into three subtypes:
•Procedural Memory: It refers to the ability to perform motor skills and habits, such as riding a bike or typing on a keyboard.
•Priming: It occurs when exposure to a stimulus affects the response to another stimulus, without conscious awareness. For
example, hearing a song that was played during a happy moment might trigger positive feelings.
•Conditioning: It refers to learned associations between stimuli and responses, such as Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate at the
sound of a bell.
Recalling long-term memories can occur in various ways, such as through free recall, cued recall, recognition, and relearning. Free
recall involves attempting to retrieve information without any cues or prompts, while cued recall provides hints or clues to aid
recall. Recognition involves identifying previously encountered information from a list of options, while relearning involves
reacquiring information that was previously learned.
Overall, recalling long-term memories is an essential aspect of functioning in daily life, allowing us to access our past experiences
and knowledge to inform our current behavior and decision-making.
 Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information from memory that was previously stored.
There are different types of forgetting, including decay, interference, and retrieval failure.
1.Decay refers to the fading away of memories over time when they are not used or accessed frequently. For example, if you
learned a new language but don't practice it regularly, you may forget some of the words and grammar rules over time.
2.Interference occurs when new memories interfere with the retrieval of old memories. This can happen when similar information
is learned or experienced. For example, if you learn two phone numbers that are very similar, you may have a hard time
remembering which number belongs to which person.
3.Retrieval failure happens when a memory is still stored in our brain, but we can't access it for some reason. This can happen
due to lack of cues or context to trigger the memory. For example, if you meet someone at a party but can't remember their name
later on, you may be able to recall it if you see a picture of them or hear their voice again.
Forgetting can be influenced by various factors such as age, stress, sleep, and health conditions like Alzheimer's disease.
Strategies like repetition, organization, and association can help improve memory and reduce forgetting.
4. Memory disturbances can also occur due to mental health conditions like depression, anxiety, and trauma.
Overall, forgetting is a natural process that happens to everyone, and understanding its causes and mechanisms can help us better
manage and improve our memory abilities.
 Memory Dysfunctions
Amnesia
Amnesia is a type of memory dysfunction that can affect one's ability to remember information, events, or experiences. Here are
some key points about amnesia:
1.Amnesia can be caused by various factors, including brain damage, alcohol or drug abuse, infections, and psychological
trauma.
2.There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
3.Retrograde amnesia refers to difficulty in recalling memories from before the onset of amnesia. In other words, people with
retrograde amnesia may forget things they knew prior to their injury or illness.
4.Anterograde amnesia refers to difficulty in forming new memories after the onset of amnesia. In other words, people with
anterograde amnesia have trouble remembering new information or experiences.
5.Other symptoms of amnesia may include confusion, disorientation, and problems with concentration or attention.
Examples:
1.Patient H.M. - Perhaps the most famous case of amnesia, Patient H.M. underwent a brain surgery to treat his epilepsy which
resulted in severe anterograde amnesia. Despite having intact procedural memory (i.e., motor skills), he was unable to form any
new declarative memories. His case played an important role in our understanding of the role of the hippocampus in memory
formation.
2.Clive Wearing - A British musician who contracted viral encephalitis, which resulted in both retrograde and anterograde
amnesia. He has been described as "living in the present moment" due to his inability to recall past events or form new
memories. However, he retained his musical abilities and could still conduct a choir.
3.An alcoholic who develops Korsakoff's syndrome - This condition, caused by a thiamine deficiency in the brain due to chronic
alcohol abuse, can result in both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The individual may have difficulty recalling past events as
well as forming new memories.
 Dementia

1.Dementia is a general term used to describe a decline in cognitive function that interferes with daily activities. It is not a specific
disease, but rather a group of symptoms caused by various underlying conditions.
2.The most common cause of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for around 60-70% of cases. Other causes include
vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia.
3.Symptoms of dementia may include memory loss, difficulty with language, impaired judgment, changes in mood or behavior,
and problems with performing everyday tasks.
4.There is no cure for dementia, but treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. This may include
medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes.
5.Risk factors for developing dementia include age, genetics, certain medical conditions (e.g., high blood pressure), and lifestyle
factors such as smoking and poor diet.
Examples:
1.Alzheimer's disease - As mentioned above, Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia. It is a progressive brain
disorder that typically starts with mild memory loss and eventually leads to significant impairment in thinking, reasoning, and
communication.
2.Vascular dementia - This type of dementia is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the brain, often due to stroke or other
cardiovascular issues. Symptoms may include difficulty with problem-solving, confusion, and trouble with motor skills.
It's worth noting that these examples are just a few of the many types of dementia that exist. Each type can present differently and
may require different treatment approaches.
 Techniques of enhancing memory

1.Repetition: Repeating information multiple times can help to solidify it in your memory. For example, if you're trying to
remember someone's name, you might repeat it a few times after meeting them.
2.Association: Linking new information to something you already know can help to make it more memorable. For example, if
you need to remember a grocery list, you might associate each item with a room in your house.
3.Visualization: Creating mental images or visualizing concepts can help to make them more memorable. For example, if you
need to remember a phone number, you might visualize the numbers as being written on a chalkboard.
4.Chunking: Breaking information down into smaller "chunks" can make it easier to remember. For example, if you need to
remember a long number, you might break it down into groups of three or four digits.
5.Mnemonics: Using a rhyme, acronym, or other mnemonic device can help to remember information. For example, "Every
Good Boy Deserves Fudge" can help to remember the notes on the lines of a treble clef.
6.Practice and review: Consistently practicing and reviewing information is key to retaining it in memory. For example, if
you're learning a new language, regularly studying vocabulary and grammar rules can help to reinforce them in your memory.
Try incorporating these techniques into your daily routine to enhance your memory!