Centralized and Distributed

Computing
• The terms centralized and distributed computing are used
to describe where the network processing takes place.
• In a centralized computing model, one system provides both
the data storage and the processing power for client systems.
• This networking model is most often associated with computer
mainframes and dumb terminals, where no processing or storage
capability exists at the workstation.
• These network environments are rare, but they do still exist.
• A distributed network model has the processing power
distributed between the client systems and the server.
• Most modern networks use the distributed network model, where
client workstations share in the processing responsibilities.
 Network Topologies
• A topology refers to both the physical and logical
layout of a network.
• The physical topology of a network refers to the actual
layout of the computer cables and other network
devices.
• The logical topology of a network, on the other hand,
refers to the way in which the network appears to the
devices that use it.
• Several topologies are in use for networks today.
• Some of the more common include the bus, ring,
star, mesh, and wireless topologies.
 Bus Topology
• A bus network uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the
computers on the network connect.
• Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps.
• To avoid signal reflection, a physical bus topology requires that
each end of the physical bus be terminated.
• Figure below shows an example of a physical bus topology.
Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Bus Topology
• Compared to other topologies, a bus is cheap and easy
to implement.
• There might be network disruption when computers
are added or removed.
• Requires less cable than other topologies.
• Because all systems on the network connect to a
single backbone, a break in the cable will prevent all
systems from accessing the network.
• Does not use any specialized network equipment.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
 Ring Topology
• The ring topology is actually a logical ring, meaning that the data
travels in circular fashion from one computer to another on the network.
• It is not a physical ring topology.
• Figure below shows the logical layout of a ring network.
• In a true ring topology, if a single computer or section of cable fails, there is an
interruption in the signal.
• The entire network becomes inaccessible. Network disruption can also occur
when computers are added or removed from the network, making it an
impractical network design in environments where there is constant change to
the network.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
the Ring Topology
• Cable faults are easily located, making
troubleshooting easier.
• Expansion to the network can cause network
disruption.
• Ring networks are moderately easy to install.
• A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire
network.
 Star Topology
• In the star topology, all computers and other network devices connect to a central
device called a hub or switch.
• Each connected device requires a single cable to be connected to
the hub, creating a point-to-point connection between the device and
the hub.
• The star topology is the most widely implemented network design in use
today, but it is not without its shortcomings.
• Because all devices connect to a centralized hub, this creates a single point of
failure for the network.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
the Star Topology
• Star networks are easily expanded without
disruption to the network.
• Requires more cable than most of the other
topologies.
• Cable failure affects only a single user.
• A central connecting device allows for a single point
of failure.
• Easy to troubleshoot and isolate problems.
• More difficult than other topologies to implement.
 Mesh Topology
• The mesh topology incorporates a unique
network design in
which each computer on the network connects to every
other, creating a point-to-point connection between
every device on the network.
• The purpose of the mesh design is to provide a high level of redundancy.
• Mesh topology is rarely used.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
the Mesh Topology
• Provides redundant paths between devices
• Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.
• The network can be expanded without disruption to
current users.
• Complicated implementation.
 Infrastructure Wireless Topology
• The infrastructure wireless topology is commonly used to
extend a wired LAN to include wireless devices
through a base station known as an access point
(AP) or wireless access point (WAP).
• The AP forms a bridge between a wireless and wired LAN,
and all transmissions between wireless stations, or between a
system and a wired network client, go through the AP.
• APs are not mobile and have to stay connected to the
wired network; therefore, they become part of the wired
network infrastructure thus the name.
• There might be several access points providing wireless
coverage for a large area
 Ad Hoc Wireless Networking
• In a wireless ad hoc topology, devices communicate
directly between themselves without using an access
point.
• This peer-to-peer network design is commonly used to
connect a small number of computers or wireless devices.
• As an example, an ad hoc wireless network may be set
up temporarily between laptops in a boardroom or to
connect to systems in a home instead of a wired
solution.
• The ad-hoc wireless design provides a quick method to
share files and resources between a small number of
systems.
Comparing wireless
topologies.
 IEEE and Networking
Standards
• IEEE developed a series of networking
standards to ensure networking
technologies developed by respective
manufacturers are compatible.
• This means that the cabling,
networking devices, and protocols are
all interchangeable when designed
under the banner of a specific IEEE
standard.
802.2, 802.3, 802.5, and 802.11.
• Each of these IEEE specifications outlines
specific characteristics for LAN networking,
including the speed, topology, cabling, and
access method.
• The following slides outline the key features of these
IEEE specifications and the specific characteristics of
each.
 802.2 IEEE Standard
• The 802.2 standard, referred to as the Logical Link
Control (LLC), manages data flow control and error
control for the other IEEE LAN standards.
• Data flow control regulates how much data can be
transmitted in a certain amount of time.
• Error control refers to the recognition and notification
of damaged signals.
 802.3 IEEE Standard
 The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the characteristics for
Ethernet networks.
 Ethernet networking is by far the most widely implemented
form of local area networking.
 Several Ethernet LAN characteristics are identified in the
802.3 standard.
 Since the development of the original 802.3 standards, there
have also been several additions that have been assigned new
designators.
 These standards are often referred to as the 802.3x standards.
 Some of the newer standards include 802.3u for Fast
Ethernet, 802.3z for Gigabit Ethernet, and 802.3ae for 10-
Gigabit Ethernet
 Features for 802.3
• Speed: The original IEEE 802.3 standard specified
a network transfer rate of 10Mbps.
• There have been modifications to the standard, the
result being Fast Ethernet (802.3u), which can transmit
network data up to 100Mbps and higher, as well as
Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z), which can transmit at speeds
up to 1000Mbps.
• 802.3ae is a very fast 803.3 standard. Known as 10-
Gigabit Ethernet, it offers speeds 10 times that of Gigabit
Ethernet.
 Features for 802.3
• Topology: The original Ethernet networks used a
bus or star topology because the original 802.3 standard
included specifications for both twisted pair and coaxial
cabling.
• The IEEE 802.3u and 802.3z specify twisted pair cabling
and use a star topology.
• Remember that even when Ethernet uses a physical star
topology, it uses a logical bus topology.
 Features for 802.3
• Media: The media refers to the physical cabling
used to transmit the signal around the network.
• The original 802.3 specifications identified coaxial and
twisted pair cabling to be used.
• The more modern standards specify twisted pair and
fiber-optic cable.
• 802.3ae currently only supports fiber media.
 Features for 802.3
• Access method: The access method refers to the
way that the network media is accessed.
• Ethernet networks use a system called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
• CSMA/CD works by monitoring the computers that are sending
data on the network.
• If two computers transmit data at the same time, a data collision
will occur.
• To prevent collisions, the systems sending the data will be
required to wait a period of time and then retransmit the data to
avoid the collision.
• 10-Gigbit Ethernet only operates in full-duplex mode and, as
such, does not need to use the traditional Ethernet CSMA/CD
access method.
 802.5 IEEE Standard
• The IEEE 802.5 standard specifies the characteristics for
Token Ring networks.
• Token Ring was introduced by IBM in the mid-1980s and
quickly became the network topology of choice until the
rise in popularity of Ethernet.
• It is unlikely that you will encounter a ring network in
your travels and even more unlikely that you will be
implementing a ring network as a new installation.
• For what it's worth, Token Ring is a solid network
system, but Ethernet has all but eliminated it.
 802.11 IEEE Standards
• The 802.11 standards specify the characteristics of
wireless LAN Ethernet networks.
• Under the banner of 802.11, there are four common
wireless standards.
• These include 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g.
• Each of these wireless standards identifies several
characteristics.
• Here is a review of the 802.11 wireless standards and
characteristics:
 802.11 IEEE Standards
• Speed 802.11 standards are measured in Mbps and vary
between network standards.
• Media The 802.11 standards use radio frequency (RF)
as a transmission media. Depending on the standard,
radio frequencies include 2.4GHz and 5GHz.
• Topology 802.11 wireless standards can be implemented
in an ad-hoc or infrastructure topology.
• Access method 802.11 uses Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). CSMA/CA is a
variation on the CSMA/CD access method. CSMA/CA
access method uses a "listen before talking" strategy.
Any system wanting to transmit data must first verify that
the channel is clear before transmitting, thereby avoiding
potential collisions.
 802.11 IEEE Standards
• Spread Spectrum Spread spectrum refers to the manner
in which data signals travel through a radio frequency
• Spread spectrum requires that data signals either
alternate between carrier frequencies or constantly
change their data pattern.
• Spread spectrum is designed to trade off bandwidth
efficiency for reliability, integrity, and security.
• Range 802.11 wireless standards each specify a
transmission range. The range is influenced by many
factors such as obstacles or weather.
 The following is a look at the various 802.11
standards and their characteristics.
• IEEE 802.11
• There were actually two variations on the initial 802.11
standard. Both offered 1 or 2Mbps transmission speeds
and the same Radio Frequency (RF) of 2.4GHz.
• The difference between the two was in the way in which
data traveled through the RF media.
• One used frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS),
and the other, direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
• IEEE 802.11a In terms of speed, the 802.11a standard
was far ahead of the original standards. 802.11a
specified speeds of up to 54Mbps in the 5GHz band; but
most commonly, communications takes place at 6Mbps,
12Mbps, or 24Mbps. 802.11a is not compatible with
other wireless standards 802.11b and 802.11g.
• These standards are heavily favored to the 802.11a
The following is a look at the various 802.11
standards and their characteristics.
• IEEE 802.11b
• The 802.11b standard provides for a maximum
transmission speed of 11Mbps. However, devices are
designed to be backward compatible with previous
standards that provided for speeds of 1-, 2-, and
5.5Mbps. 802.11b uses a 2.4GHz RF range and is
compatible with 802.11g.
• IEEE 802.11g
• 802.11g is a popular wireless standard today. 802.11g
offers wireless transmission over distances of 150 feet
and speeds up to 54Mbps compared with the 11
megabits per second of the 802.11b standard. Like
802.11b, 802.11g operates in the 2.4GHz range, and is
thus compatible with it.
 Infrared Wireless Networking
• Infrared has been around for a long time; perhaps our
first experience with it was the TV remote.
• The command entered onto the remote control travels
over an infrared light wave to the receiver on the TV.
• Infrared technology has progressed, and today infrared
development in networking is managed by the Infrared
Data Association (IrDA).
• IrDA wireless networking uses infrared beams to send
data transmissions between devices.
• Infrared wireless networking offers higher transmission
rates reaching 10Mbps to 16Mbps.
 Infrared Wireless Networking
• Infrared provides a secure, low-cost, convenient cable
replacement technology.
• It is well suited for many specific applications and
environments.
• Some of the key infrared points are included here:
• Infrared provides adequate speeds, up to 16Mbps.
• A directed infrared system provides a very limited range
of approximately 3 feet and typically is used for a PAN.
• Infrared devices use less power and a decreased drain
on batteries.
• Infrared is a secure medium. Infrared signals typically
travel short range between devices, which eliminates the
problem of eavesdropping or signal tampering.
 Infrared Wireless Networking
• Infrared has no radio frequency interference issues or
signal conflicts.
• Infrared replaces cables for many devices such as
keyboards, mice, and other peripherals.
• Infrared uses a dispersed mode or a direct line of sight
transmission.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a wireless standard used for many purposes
including connecting peripheral devices to a system.
• Bluetooth uses a low-cost, short-range radio link to
create a link to replace many of the cords that used to
connect devices.
• Bluetooth-enabled devices support transmissions
distances of up to 10 or so meters using an ad-hoc
network design.
• Bluetooth establishes the link using an RF-based media
and does not require a direct line of sight to make a
connection.
• The Bluetooth Standard defines a short RF link capable
of voice or data transmission up to a maximum capacity
of 720Kb/s per channel.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth operates at 2.4 to 2.48GHz and uses a spread
spectrum, frequency-hopping technology.
• The signal hops can hop between 79 frequencies at
1MHz intervals to give a high degree of interference
immunity.
• As an established technology, Bluetooth has many
advantages, but the speed of 720Kbps is limiting.
• The newest version of Bluetooth, Bluetooth 2.0, will
increase overall speed to a data rate of 3Mbps.
• This speed might still be significantly slower than
802.11b or g, but for an easily configured, cable
replacement technology, it is an attractive option.
Spread Spectrum Technology
• Spread spectrum refers to the manner in which data
signals travel through a radio frequency.
• Spread spectrum requires that data signals either
alternate between carrier frequencies or constantly
change their data pattern.
• Although the shortest distance between two points is a
straight line (narrowband), spread spectrum is designed
to trade-off bandwidth efficiency for reliability, integrity,
and security.
• There are two types of spread spectrum radio: frequency
hopping and direct sequence.
 FHSS
• FHSS requires the use of narrowband signals that
change frequencies in a predictable pattern.
• The term frequency hopping refers to hopping of data
signals between narrow channels.
• Somewhere between 20 and several hundred
milliseconds, the signal hops to a new channel following
a predetermined cyclic pattern.
• Because data signals using FHSS switch between RF
bands, they have a strong resistance to interference and
environmental factors.
• The constant hopping between channels also increases
security as signals are harder to eavesdrop on.
 DSSS
• DSSS transmissions spread the signal over a full
transmission frequency spectrum.
• For every bit of data that is sent, a redundant bit pattern
is also sent.
• This 32-bit pattern is called a chip.
• These redundant bits of data provide for both security
and delivery assurance.
• Transmissions are so safe and reliable simply because
the system sends so many redundant copies of the data
and only a single copy is required to have complete
transmission of the data or information.
• DSSS can minimize the effects of interference and
background noise.
 Broadband Versus Baseband
• Networks employ two types of signaling methods: baseband
and broadband.
• Baseband transmissions use digital signaling over a single wire.
• Communication on baseband transmissions is bidirectional,
allowing signals to be sent and received but not at the same
time.
• To send multiple signals on a single cable, baseband uses
something called Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). TDM
divides a single channel into time slots.
• In terms of LAN network standards, broadband transmissions,
on the other hand, use analog transmissions.
• For broadband transmissions to be sent and received, the
media has to be split into two channels.
• Multiple channels are created using Frequency Division-
Multiplexing (FDM).
Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full
Duplex
• Simplex, half duplex, and full duplex are referred to as
dialog modes, and they determine the direction in which
data can flow through the network media.
• Simplex allows for one-way communication of data
through the network, with the full bandwidth of the cable
being used for the transmitting signal.
• One-way communication is of little use on LANs, making
it unusual at best for network implementations.
• An example of simplex transmission is the signal sent
from the cable TV station to the home television.
 Half Duplex communication
• Far more common is the half-duplex mode, which
accommodates transmitting and receiving on the
network but not at the same time.
• Many networks are configured for half-duplex
communication.
• communications mobile radios, work with half-duplex
transmissions
 Full duplex communication
• The preferred dialog mode for network communication is the
full-duplex mode.
• To use full duplex, both the network card and the hub or switch
must support full duplexing.
• Devices configured for full duplexing are capable of transmitting
and receiving simultaneously.
• This means that 100Mbps network cards are capable of
transmitting at 200Mbps using full-duplex mode.
• A regular telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex
communication.
• Both parties can talk at the same time, and the person talking
on the other end can still be heard by the other party while they
are talking.
 Media Interference
• Depending on where network cabling (commonly
referred to as media) is installed, interference can be a
major consideration.
• Two types of media interference can adversely affect
data transmissions over network media: electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
• EMI is a problem when cables are installed near
electrical devices, such as air conditioners or fluorescent
light fixtures.
• If a network media is placed close enough to such a
device, the signal within the cable might become corrupt.
 Media Interference
• Network media vary in their resistance to the effects of EMI.
• Standard UTP cable is susceptible to EMI, whereas fiber
cable with its light transmissions is resistant to EMI.
• When deciding on a particular media, consider where it will
run and the impact EMI can have on the installation.
• A second type of interference is crosstalk.
• Crosstalk refers to how the data signals on two separate
media interfere with each other.
• The result is that the signal on both cables can become
corrupt.
• As with EMI, media varies in its resistance to crosstalk, with
fiber-optic cable being the most resistant.
 Attenuation
• Attenuation refers to the weakening of data signals as they
travel through a respective media.
• Network media varies in its resistance to attenuation.
• Coaxial cable is generally more resistant than UTP, STP is
slightly more resistant than UTP, and fiber-optic cable does not
suffer from attenuation at all.
• That's not to say that a signal does not weaken as it travels
over fiber-optic cable, but the correct term for this weakening is
'chromatic dispersion,' rather than attenuation.
• It's important to understand attenuation or chromatic dispersion
and the maximum distances specified for network media.
Exceeding a media's distance without using repeaters can
cause hard-to-troubleshoot network problems
 MAXIMUM DATA RATE OF A CHANNEL
• Data rate depends on three factors: 1. bandwidth
available 2. Level of the signals we use 3. Quality of
the channel (the level of noise) The quality of the
channel indicates two types:
• a) A Noiseless or Perfect Channel
• An ideal channel with no noise.
• The Nyquist Bit rate derived by Henry Nyquist gives
the bit rate for a Noiseless Channel.
• b) A Noisy Channel
• A realistic channel that has some noise.
• The Shannon Capacity formulated by Claude
Shannon gives the bit rate for a Noisy Channel
 Nyquist Bit Rate
 The Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless
channel

Where,
 Bitrate is the bitrate of the channel in bits per
second
 Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
 L is the number of signal levels.
 Example
• What is the maximum bit rate of
a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 5000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two
signal levels.
 Shannon Capacity
• The Shannon Capacity defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate for a noisy channel

Where,
 Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits
per second
 Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
 SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio
 Example
• Calculate the bit rate for a noisy
channel with SNR 300 and
bandwidth of 3000Hz
 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL
ENCODING
 Data can be analog or digital, so can be the signal that represents it.
 Signal encoding is the conversion from analog/digital data to analog /
digital signal.
 The possible encodings

 1. Digital data to Digital Signal

 2. Digital data to Analog Signal
 3. Analog data to Digital Signal
 4. Analog data to Analog Signal
Synchronization
 Synchronization
 In order to receive the signals correctly, the
receivers bit intervals must correspond
exactly to the senders bit intervals.
 The clock frequency of the transmitter
and receiver should be the same.
 If the clock frequency at the receiver is
slower or faster than for sender then the bit
intervals are not matched and the received
signal is different from the transmitted one.
 Digital Data to Digital Signal
• Line coding: Process of converting Digital
data into digital signal
• Look at two classification of line coding
schemes
• 1. Unipolar– All signal levels are either
above or below the time axis(NRZ e.g.)
• 2. Polar– NRZ-Voltages are on both sides
of the time axis
Unipolar(NRZ) & Polar(RZ &
NRZ) Encoding
Polar biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester coding
schemes
 Analog data to analog signal
• Modulation
• The Process of converting analog data to
analog signal is called Modulation.
• Modulation is the process of varying some
characteristic(amplitude,freq, phase) of a
periodic wave with an external signal called
carrier signal.
• The characteristics of the carrier signal are
varied in accordance with the information
bearing signal(analog data).
 Types of Modulation
• Signal modulation can be divided into two broad
categories:
•  Analog modulation and
•  Digital modulation.
• Analog or digital refers to how the data is
modulated onto a sine wave.
• If analog audio data is modulated onto a carrier
sine wave, then this is referred to as analog
modulation.
• Digital modulation is used to convert digital
data to analog signal. Ex ASK, FSK, PSK.
 Analogue Modulation
• Analog Modulation can be accomplished
in three ways:
• 1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
• 2. Frequency modulation (FM)
• 3. Phase modulation (PM).
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Amplitude modulation is a type of
modulation where the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance
with modulating signal.
• The envelope, or boundary, of the
amplitude modulated signal embeds
modulating signal.
• Amplitude Modulation is abbreviated AM.
AM
 Frequency modulation (FM)
• Frequency modulation is a type of modulation
where the frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal. The
amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
• The information-bearing signal (the modulating
signal) changes the instantaneous frequency of
the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant,
FM modulation is a low-noise process and
provides a high quality modulation technique
which is used for music and speech in hi-fidelity
broadcasts.
FM
 Phase modulation (PM).
• In phase modulation, the instantaneous
phase of a carrier wave is varied from its
reference value by anamount proportional
to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 Digital Modulation Types(Digital to
Analog signal conversion)
• Digital modulation is used to convert
digital data to analog signal.
 It can be accomplished in the following
ways:
 1. ASK
 2. FSK
 3. PSK
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes
• Binary ASK (BASK)
• ASK is normally implemented using only two levels
and is hence called binary amplitude shift keying. Bit
1 is transmitted by a carrier of one particular
amplitude. To transmit Bit 0 we change the amplitude
keeping the frequency is kept constant
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• In Frequency shift keying, we change
the frequency of the carrier wave.
• Bit 0 is represented by a specific
frequency, and bit 1 is represented by a
different frequency.
• In the figure below frequency used for bit 1
is higher than frequency used for bit 0
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Phase shift keying (PSK) is a method of transmitting
and receiving digital signals in which the phase of a
transmitted signal is varied to convey information.
• Both amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes.
• The simplest from of PSK has only two phases, 0 and
1.
• If the phase of the wave does not change, then the
signal state stays the same (low or high).
• If the phase of the wave changes by 180 degrees, that
is, if the phase reverses, then the signal state changes
(from low to high or from high to low)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Analog to Digital Conversion
using modulation
3 modulation techniques:
1. PAM
2. PCM
3. PWM
 PAM (Pulse Amplitude
Modulation)
• Pulse Amplitude Modulation refers
to a method of carrying
information on a train of pulses,
the information being encoded in
the amplitude of the pulses.
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
• PCM is a general scheme for
transmitting analog data in a digital and
binary way, independent of the
complexity of the analog waveform.
With PCM all forms of analog data like
video, voice, music and telemetry can
be transferred.
 PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation)
• Pulse Width Modulation refers to a
method of carrying information on a
train of pulses, the information being
encoded in the width of the pulses. In
applications to motion control, it is not
exactly information we are encoding,
but a method of controlling power in
motors without (significant) loss.
 Networking - OSI Model and
Network Protocols
• One of the most important networking concepts to
understand is the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI)
reference model.
• This conceptual model, created by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1978 and revised
in 1984, describes a network architecture that allows data to
be passed between computer systems.
• The OSI model is conceptual, an appreciation of its purpose
and function can help you better understand how protocol
suites and network architectures work in practical
applications.
 OSI Seven Layer Model
• As shown in Figure to follow, the OSI reference model is
built, bottom to top, in the following order: physical, data-
link, network, transport, session, presentation, and
application.
• The physical layer is classified as layer 1 and the top
layer of the model, the application layer, as layer 7.
 OSI 7-layer Model
• OSI 7-layer Model
• Students should be able to apply the OSI model to networking hardware
• and software.
• Skill: Know which common networking items match layer 1: Physical.
• Bit (protocol data unit)
• Repeater (device, two-port hub)
• Hub (device, multi-port repeater)
• Media: wire, coax, ber, rj45, cat5e
• Skill: Know which common networking items match layer 2: Data Link.
• Frame (protocol data unit)
• Switch (device, multi-port bridge)
• Bridge (device, two-port switch)
• Physical Addressing, MAC Address
• Skill: Know which common networking items match layer 3: Network.
• Packet (protocol data unit)
• Router (device)
• Gateway (device)
• Logical Addressing, IP Address
• WAN (wide area network)
• DHCP (dynamic host conguration protocol)
 OSI 7-layer Model
• Skill: Know which common networking items match layer 4: Transport.
• Segment (protocol data unit)
• Port
• Flow Control
• TCP (reliable)
• UDP (fast)
• Skill: Know which common networking items match other layers.
• Encryption :: 6 Presentation
• User :: 7 Application
 Physical Layer (Layer 1)
• Physical Layer (Layer 1)
• The physical layer of the OSI model identifies the physical
characteristics of the network that includes
• Hardware The type of media used on the network such as type
of cable, type of connector, and pinout format for cables.
• Topology The physical layer identifies the topology to be used
in the network
• also defines the voltage used on a given media and the
frequency at which the signals that carry the data move from
one state to another.
• These characteristics dictate the speed and bandwidth of a
given media as well as the maximum distance over which a
certain media type can be used.
 Data-link Layer (Layer 2)
• The data-link layer is responsible for getting data to the
physical layer so that it can be transmitted over the
network.
• The data-link layer is also responsible for error detection,
error correction, and hardware addressing.
• The term frame is used to describe the logical grouping of data
at the data-link layer.
• The data-link layer has two distinct sublayers the Media
Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the Logical Link
Control (LLC) sublayer.
 Data-link Layer (Layer 2)
• MAC layer: The MAC address is defined at this layer.
• The MAC address is the physical or hardware address
burned into each NIC.
• The MAC sublayer also controls access to network
media.
• The MAC layer specification is included in the
IEEE802.1 standard.
• LLC layer: The LLC layer is responsible for the error and
flow-control mechanisms of the data-link layer.
• The LLC layer is specified in the 802.2 standard.
 Network Layer (Layer 3)
• The primary responsibility of the network layer is routing
providing mechanisms by which data can be passed
from one network system to another.
• It does not specify how the data is passed, but rather
provides the mechanisms to do so.
• Functionality at the network layer is provided through
protocols, which are software components.
 Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Protocols at the network layer are also responsible for
route selection, which refers to determining the best path
for the data to take throughout the network.
• In contrast to the data-link layer, which uses MAC
addresses to communicate on the LAN, network
protocols use software configured addresses and special
routing protocols to communicate on the network.
• The term packet is used to describe the logical grouping
of data at the data-link layer.
 Transport Layer (Layer 4)
• The basic function of the transport layer is to provide
mechanisms to transport data between network devices.
• Primarily it does this in three ways:
• Error checking Protocols at the transport layer ensure that
data is sent or received correctly.
• Service addressing Protocols such as TCP/IP support many
network services.
• The transport layer makes sure that data is passed to the right
service at the upper layers of the OSI model.
• Segmentation To traverse the network, blocks of data need to
be broken down into packets that are of a manageable size for
the lower layers to handle.
• This process, called segmentation, is the responsibility of the
transport layer.
 Protocols at the Transport
Layer
• Protocols that operate at the transport
layer can either be connectionless, such
as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) ,
or connection oriented, such as
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
 Flow Control
• The transport layer is also responsible for data flow
control, which refers to the way in which the receiving
device can accept data transmissions.
• There are two common methods of flow control used,
buffering and windowing:
• Buffering When buffering flow control is used, data is
temporarily stored and waits for the destination device to
become available.
• Buffering can cause a problem if the sending device
transmits data much faster than the receiving device is
able to manage it.
 Windowing
• Windowing In a windowing environment, data is sent in
groups of segments that require only one
acknowledgment.
• The size of the window (that is, how many segments fit
into one acknowledgment) is defined at the time the
session between the two devices is established.
 Session Layer (Layer 5)
• The session layer is responsible for managing and
controlling the synchronization of data between
applications on two devices.
• It does this by establishing, maintaining, and breaking
sessions.
• Whereas the transport layer is responsible for setting up
and maintaining the connection between the two nodes,
the session layer performs the same function on behalf
of the application.
 Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
• The presentation layer's basic function is to convert the data
intended for or received from the application layer into another
format.
• Such conversion is necessary because of the way in which
data is formatted, so it can be transported across the network.
• Another very important function of the presentation layer is
encryption, which is the scrambling of data so that it can't be
read by anyone other than the intended recipient.
• Given the basic role of the presentation layer that of data-
format translator it is the obvious place for encryption and
decryption to take place.
 Application Layer (Layer 7)
• In simple terms, the function of the application layer is to
take requests and data from the users and pass them to
the lower layers of the OSI model.
• Incoming information is passed to the application layer,
which then displays the information to the users.
• Some of the most basic application-layer services
include file and print capabilities.