10-1
Quality Control
Operations Management
William J. Stevenson
8th edition
10-2
Quality Control
CHAPTER
10
Quality Control
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Operations Management, Eighth Edition, by William J. Stevenson Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Quality Control
Phases of Quality Assurance
Figure 10.1
Inspection and corrective action during production
Process control
Inspection before/after production
Acceptance sampling
Quality built into the process
Continuous improvement
The least progressive
The most progressive
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Quality Control
Inspection
Figure 10.2
How Much/How Often Where/When Centralized vs. On-site
Inputs Transformation Outputs
Acceptance sampling
Process control
Acceptance sampling
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Quality Control
Inspection Costs
Figure 10.3
Cost
Total Cost
Cost of inspection
Cost of passing defectives
Optimal Amount of Inspection
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Quality Control
Where to Inspect in the Process
Raw materials and purchased parts Finished products Before a costly operation Before an irreversible process Before a covering process
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Quality Control
Examples of Inspection Points
Characteristics Accuracy Appearance, productivity Cleanliness Appearance Health regulations Safe, well lighted Accuracy, timeliness Appearance, safety Waiting times Accuracy, courtesy Quality, quantity
Table 10.1
Type of business Fast Food Inspection points Cashier Counter area Eating area Building Kitchen Hotel/motel Parking lot Accounting Building Main desk Supermarket Cashiers Deliveries
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Quality Control
Statistical Process Control:
Statistical evaluation of the output of a process during production
Quality of Conformance: A product or service conforms to specifications
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Quality Control
Control Chart
Control Chart
Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it is random
A time ordered plot representative sample statistics obtained from an on going process (e.g. sample means)
Upper and lower control limits define the range of acceptable variation
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Quality Control
Control Chart
Out of control
Figure 10.4
Abnormal variation due to assignable sources
UCL
Mean Normal variation due to chance Abnormal variation due to assignable sources
LCL
10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
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Quality Control
Statistical Process Control
The essence of statistical process control is to assure that the output of a process is random so that future output will be random.
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Quality Control
Statistical Process Control
The Control Process
Define Measure Compare Evaluate Correct Monitor results
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Quality Control
Statistical Process Control
Variations and Control
Random variation: Natural variations in the output of a process, created by countless minor factors Assignable variation: A variation whose source can be identified
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Quality Control
Sampling Distribution
Sampling distribution Process distribution
Figure 10.5
Mean
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Quality Control
Normal Distribution
Figure 10.6
Standard deviation
Mean 95.44% 99.74%
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Control Limits
Sampling distribution Process distribution
Figure 10.7
Mean Lower control limit Upper control limit
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Quality Control
SPC Errors
Type I error
Concluding a process is not in control when it actually is. Concluding a process is in control when it is not.
Type II error
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Quality Control
Type I Error
Figure 10.8
/2
/2
Mean Probability of Type I error LCL UCL
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Observations from Sample Distribution
UCL
Quality Control
Figure 10.9
LCL
2
Sample number
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Quality Control
Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.
Mean control charts
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
X bar charts
Range control charts
Used to monitor the process dispersion
R charts
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Quality Control
Mean and Range Charts
(process mean is shifting upward)
Figure 10.10A
Sampling Distribution
UCL
x-Chart
LCL
Detects shift
UCL
R-chart
LCL
Does not detect shift
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Quality Control
Mean and Range Charts
Figure 10.10B
Sampling Distribution
(process variability is increasing)
UCL
x-Chart
LCL
Does not reveal increase
UCL
R-chart
LCL
Reveals increase
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Quality Control
Control Chart for Attributes
p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the proportion of defectives in a process
c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the number of defects per unit
Attributes generate data that are counted.
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Quality Control
Use of p-Charts
Table 10.3
When observations can be placed into two categories.
Good or bad
Pass or fail Operate or dont operate
When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations each
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Quality Control
Use of c-Charts
Table 10.3
Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be counted; nonoccurrences cannot be counted.
Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item Cracks or faults per unit of distance Breaks or Tears per unit of area Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time
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Quality Control
Use of Control Charts
At what point in the process to use control charts
What size samples to take What type of control chart to use
Variables
Attributes
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Quality Control
Run Tests
Run test a test for randomness Any sort of pattern in the data would suggest a non-random process All points are within the control limits - the process may not be random
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Nonrandom Patterns in Control charts
Quality Control
Figure 10.11
Trend Cycles Bias Mean shift Too much dispersion
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Quality Control
Counting Runs
Counting Above/Below Median Runs (7 runs)
Figure 10.12
B A
B A
Figure 10.13
Counting Up/Down Runs
(8 runs)
D U
U D
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Quality Control
Process Capability
Tolerances or specifications
Range of acceptable values established by engineering design or customer requirements
Process variability
Natural variability in a process
Process capability
Process variability relative to specification
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Quality Control
Process Capability
Upper Specification
Figure 10.15
Lower Specification
A. Process variability matches specifications
Lower Specification Upper Specification
B. Process variability Lower Upper well within specifications Specification Specification
C. Process variability exceeds specifications
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Quality Control
Process Capability Ratio
specification width Process capability ratio, Cp = process width Cp = Upper specification lower specification 6
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3 Sigma and 6 Sigma Quality
Upper specification
1350 ppm 1.7 ppm
Lower specification
1350 ppm 1.7 ppm
Process mean +/- 3 Sigma +/- 6 Sigma
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Improving Process Capability
Simplify Standardize Mistake-proof Upgrade equipment Automate
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Taguchi Loss Function
Figure 10.17
Traditional cost function
Cost
Taguchi cost function
Lower spec
Target
Upper spec
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Quality Control
Limitations of Capability Indexes
Process may not be stable
Process output may not be normally distributed Process not centered but Cp is used
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