Geochemical Sampling

Surveys
Geochemical Sampling Methods

 Geochemical sampling methods are methods

which involve collecting and analyzing
various types of geological materials (such as
soils, stream sediments and rocks) or certain
biological materials (such as plants).

 Historically these methods have been very

productive in mineral exploration. 
 After discovery of Ore deposit, geochemical
sampling are used for delineation of deposit.
 
 For example, geochemical sampling of soils is
often employed to outline the general
distribution of mineralization at shallow
depths where outcrops of bedrock are
minimal or nonexistent.
Primary Dispersion Halos

 Mineral deposits represents anomalous

concentrations of specific elements usually
within a relatively confined volume of Earth’
crust.

 Most mineral deposits include a central zone

or core in which the valuable elements or
minerals are often in quantities that permits
economic exploitation
Primary Dispersion Halos

 The valuable elements surrounding this core

generally decrease in concentration until they reach
levels, measured in parts per million (ppm) or parts
per billion (ppb), which appreciably exceed the
normal background level of the enclosing rocks.

 This zone surrounding the core deposit is called as

Primary Halo or anomaly and it shows the
distribution patterns of elements which are formed
as a result of primary dispersion.
Secondary Dispersion Halos

 Mineral deposits at, or near, the surface are subject to chemical and
physical agencies of weathering. Many of the ore minerals undergo
decomposition or disintegration, and their chemical constituents
become dispersed into weathering debris, soils, ground water, and
plant tissue.

 Abnormal chemical concentrations in weathering products are known

as Secondary Dispersion Halos or anomalies and are more
widespread.

 All of these halos means that mineral deposits can be detected and
traced; they form the geochemical anomalies which are the objects of
search of all geochemical prospectors.
Geochemical Surveys
A geologist must start with a knowledge of

 Elements associated with a particular deposit type

 An idea of the size of the deposit being sought,
 The probable size of the elemental anomalies around it
 The mineralogical form of the elements,

 It has been observed that carefully implemented

stream sediment sampling surveys yield good
indication of rocks and weathering products in
catchment area.
Geochemical Survey

 Geochemical prospecting surveys are

categorized as
Strategic Surveys
 These surveys covered a large area and identify
the areas of enhanced mineralization potential.
Tactical Surveys
 These surveys are detailed follow up of strategic
surveys and covered area of high mineralization
potential.
Orientation Surveys

 A key aspect of planning a successful geochemical

survey is to evaluate which techniques are effective for
A) the commodity being sought and B) the area being
explored.

 This involves undertaking an Orientation Survey in

which a number of sampling methods are tested over a
known deposit in a similar environment to determine
the method which yields the best results.
Orientation Surveys
The Orientation survey involves:

 Understanding of target deposit type

 Understanding of surficial environment of
search area
 Nature of primary & secondary dispersion
 Sample types available
 Systematic sample collection procedures
 Sample size requirements
…. …. ….
 Sample interval, orientation and aerial
density;
 Field observations
 Sample preparation procedures
 Sample fraction for analysis
 Analytical method
 Elemental suite (pathfinder elements)
 Data format for presentation and
interpretation
Natural Water Surveys
 Water is an important medium for geochemical
prospecting.

 The background metal content of most natural waters is

only a few parts per billion, rising to a few parts per million
for certain elements in the vicinity of mineral deposits.

 Seasonal fluctuations often occur in these values and have

to be considered in water surveys.

 Either surface waters or ground waters may be tested in

water surveys, depending on local conditions.
Surface Water Surveys
 Surface waters are sampled at regular intervals along the
drainage net, and a map of the value is prepared. An increase
in the metal content of the water upstream may indicate
approach to a mineralized zone.

 Surveys based on ground waters can be done only where

there is a good distribution of wells, springs. The metal
content of the water in these is plotted on a map and
contoured.

 Higher than normal contents in the water system may

indicate sites or zones of mineralization.
Surface water Surveys
 Stream Sediment Surveys
 Surveys of sediments and heavy minerals are carried out to determine the migration
path of dispersed elements and minerals along the surface-drainage channels of an
area.

 Samples are collected from the fresh sediment in the bottoms of streams and also
from old sediment on the terraces and floodplains.

 For chemically dispersed elements, the fine fraction (minus 80 mesh) is generally
used for analysis; for mechanically dispersed heavy minerals, a coarser fraction is
panned from the sediment.

 Sampling points are located at intervals along the length of the drainage system and
the results of the chemical analyses of the stream sediment are plotted on a map of
drainage. An increase in the metal content of the stream sediment upstream may
indicate approach to a mineralized zone.

 In areas where stream channels are frequently interrupted by lakes, lake bottom
sediment has proved an effective alternative sampling medium to stream sediment
Soil Geochemical Surveys
 Soil and glacial till surveys have been used extensively in
geochemical prospecting and have resulted in the
discovery of a number of ore bodies.

 One of the soil horizons is chosen for sampling, and a

plan of the metal contents is plotted and contoured.

 Under favorable conditions, the highest values are

centered over a deposit, but more generally the
dispersion pattern is a train or a fan that requires careful
interpretation to locate its source.
Soil Sampling
Geobotanical Surveys
 Geobotanical surveys are carried out by mapping the
distribution of indicator plant species, or plant disease
symptoms diagnostic of high-metal-bearing soils.

 Where suitable indicator plants are present, this

method is rapid and inexpensive, but such plants are
seldom consistent in distribution from one area to
another.

 Geobotanical techniques require careful preliminary

orientation surveys.
Rock Geochemical Surveys
 Most reconnaissance surveys are carried out on a grid or on traverses of
an area, with samples taken of all available rock outcrops or at some
specific interval.

 One or several rock types may be selected for sampling and analyzed for
various elements.

 Geochemical maps are compiled from the analyses, and contours of equal
elemental values are drawn. These are then interpreted, often by using
statistical methods.

 Under favorable conditions, mineralized zones or belts may be outlined in

which more detailed work can be concentrated. If the survey is executed
over a large expanse of territory, geochemical provinces may be outlined.
Design of Geochemical Sampling
The design of a sampling program is critical for successful
mineral exploration.

Sampling procedure involves

 Collection of materials in the field,

 Laboratory (or field) analysis
 Plotting of the geochemical values on maps,
 Interpretation of the results. 

The materials may be analyzed for any number of elements.

… …. ….

The selection of elements for geochemical

analysis depends

 Budget
 Geology of the area
 Commodity which is being sought after. 

Often there are specific elements or suites of

elements which are known to be associated
with specific types of mineralization. 
Design of Geochemical Sampling
 Representivity is of paramount importance in geochemical
sampling. It is essential that adequate samples be taken that are
representative of the material sampled at any given locality. These
materials may be rocks, waters, gases, soils, stream sediments, or
vegetation.

 Wherever possible, sampling should be confined to one type of

material for any particular survey, such as one rock type in
lithogeochemical surveys, one horizon in soil surveys, or one plant
organ and plant species in biogeochemical surveys.

 If, through necessity such as landscape variations, diverse materials

have to be sampled, correlative factors must be applied to the
results before the geochemical patterns can be effectively
interpreted.
Rock Sampling

 Rock sampling reveals the true potential of

an area for containing a mineral deposit. 
 An anomaly in a rock sample from bedrock
has had no effects of secondary dispersion, so
the location of the sample is the location of
the source. 
 However, this applies only to rock samples
collected from bedrock and does not apply to
rock sample from overburden material.
… …. ….
 Rock samples are collected to determine the
concentration of metals, including both the major
and trace metals. 
 This type of sample is most commonly referred to as
a “geochem” sample. 
 Trace metal values are often useful as “pathfinders”,
which means they are closely associated with the
metal of interest and may occur within a halo
surrounding the mineralization of interest
 Rock geochem samples are collected in different
manners depending on the goal of the sampling. 
The principle types include:
 Grab Samples:   A grab sample is a sample of rock
material from a confined area (< 1 foot across). 
 It can be a single piece of rock. 
 These are the most common types of samples
collected. 
 The sample usually consists of a single piece of rock,
or chunks (large piece), which are representative of
a specific type of rock or mineralization.
 Composite Samples:  A composite sample consists
of small chips of uniform rock material collected
over a large area (generally > 5 feet across). 
 These are the ideal “representative” samples. 
 The procedure is to collect small pieces of rock over
a large area (usually at least 10 feet across) and to
make the sample as homogenous as possible. 
 A composite sample might be collected to
determine the background values of trace elements
in a particular type of rock, or to determine if ore
grade mineralization is present over a large area.
 High Grade Samples:   A high grade sample consists of selective
pieces of the most highly mineralized material, in which an effort is
made to exclude less mineralized material. 
 Consequently, a high grade sample is generally not representative
of the overall mineralization type. 
 A high grade sample might be collected to get an idea what the
best possible values are, or to provide material for certain types of
trace element analyses. 
 If a such a selective sample does not return good results, then it is
unlikely that valuable mineralization is present. 
 When a high grade sample is collected it is important to note that it
is a high grade sample so its values will not be misinterpreted as
representing the “average” values.
 Chip Channel Samples:  A chip channel sample
consists of small chips of rock collected over a
specified interval. 
 The objective is to obtain the most representative
sample possible for the specified sample interval.
 
 Most of the time chip channel samples are
collected in succession along a sample line which
is laid out in advance using a tape. 
 This provides a great deal of information about
the width and other aspects of the geometry of a
mineralized zone. 
 Often the chip channel samples are collected
along the floors or walls of trenches or adits. 
When chip channel sampling along walls,
sometimes a piece of canvas or plastic is laid
out for the material to fall on so as to avoid
contamination and make the collection
easier. 
 The freshest material possible is sampled,
preferably chipping directly from bedrock. 
Sample intervals are set at a specified width,
usually ranging from 1 to 20 feet. 
 Several other types of rock samples are
sometimes collected to help interpret the history
of mineralization in an area, to better understand
the relationships between different ore minerals,
or to determine more detailed geochemistry. 
 These types of samples are often collected to
evaluate the mineralization in a regional context,
or to compare the mineralization with models
which might apply to a given situation.  Although
they can might be costly, the information they
provide can be invaluable. 
 Whole Rock Major Oxide Samples:  Whole rock major
oxide samples are most often collected to study the
whole rock geochemistry of plutonic and volcanic rocks. 
 The sample must be completely fresh, unweathered, and
unoxidized. 
 If necessary the weathered surface must be removed by
chipping or by using a rock saw. 
 Samples must also be unaltered by hydrothermal
alteration (this adds new components and removes
others, such that it will no longer represent the parent
magma composition). 
 The sample is analyzed for the principle oxides,
including, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, FeO, K2O,
MgO, MnO, Na2O, P2O5, TiO2.  Usually at least
98 % of the rock is made up of minerals
comprised of some combination of these
components. 
 Major oxide analyses are used to classify igneous
rocks based on their chemical composition. 
These can be used to compare intrusions within a
district or to use in regional studies by comparing
the analyses with those for known models.
 Age Date Samples:   Age date samples are
used to determine the age of the rocks. 
 There are several methods, including
40Ar/39Ar, U/Pb, K/Ar, Rb/Sr, and Carbon 14.
 
 Petrographic Samples:   Petrographic samples
are collected to conduct thin section
petrographic analysis of the rock, which is the
identification and evaluation of the minerals
comprising the rock by using a microscope
equipped with both plane and polarized light. 
 Typical Geochemical Exploration
Program
A full-scale geochemical prospecting program for metals would include the
following stages:

I. Preliminary evaluation of areas, selected on the basis of available geological

data, by sampling and testing intrusive, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks
and by noting the presence of mineralized zones. In this way, a metallogenetic
province can be identified.

II. Primary reconnaissance and orientation surveys, based on sampling major

drainage basins, using water, stream sediment, lake sediment, and heavy-
mineral surveys.

III. Secondary reconnaissance surveys based on detailed testing of drainage basins

containing anomalous values. Poorly drained areas can be tested by widely
spaced sampling of soil and ground waters.
… …. …. …
IV. Follow-up surveys along dispersion trains or fans to determine the
cutoff points and the extent of dispersion patterns. These surveys are
normally a combination of stream sediment, heavy mineral, water,
and soil testing, but biogeochemical surveys may also be useful.
Priority for follow-up surveys should be based on the presence of
favorable rocks and geological structures, favorable geophysical
indications, and intensity of the geochemical anomaly.

V. Detailed surveys carried out in the vicinity of the suspected

metalliferous source by soil or vegetation sampling at closely spaced
intervals. Interpretation of the results at this stage generally suggests
sites for trenching, sinking of shallow shaft, or drilling to locate the
precise source of the body giving rise to the geochemical anomaly
Questions???