CAS CS 460/660

Introduction to Database Systems

Relational Algebra

1.1
 Relational Query Languages

 Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval of data from a

database.

 Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:

 Strong formal foundation based on logic.
 Allows for much optimization.

 Query Languages != programming languages!

 QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
 QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
 QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.

1.2
 Formal Relational Query Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form the basis for “real”
languages (e.g. SQL), and for implementation:

Relational Algebra: More operational, very useful for representing

execution plans.

Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what they want, rather

than how to compute it. (Non-procedural, declarative.)

 Understanding Algebra (and Calculus) is key to

understanding SQL, query processing!

1.3
 Preliminaries
 A query is applied to relation instances, and the result of a query is
also a relation instance.
 Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but query will run over
any legal instance)
 The schema for the result of a given query is fixed.

 It is determined by the definitions of the query

language constructs.

 Positional vs. named-field notation:

 Positional notation easier for formal definitions, named-field notation
more readable.
 Both used in SQL

1.4
 Relational Algebra: 5 Basic Operations
 Selection ( 
) Selects a subset of rows from relation
(horizontal).
 Projection ( ) Retains only wanted columns from relation
(vertical). 
 Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two relations.
 Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not in r2.

 Union ( ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)

1.5
 Example Instances R1 sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
Sailing Database: 58 103 11/12/96
Sailors, Boats, Reserves
S1 sid sname rating age
bid bname color 22 dustin 7 45.0
101 Interlake blue 31 lubber 8 55.5
102 Interlake red 58 rusty 10 35.0
103 Clipper green
S2
104 Marine red
Boats
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
1.6
 Selection () – Horizontal Restriction
 Selects rows that satisfy selection condition.
 Result is a relation.
Schema of result is same as that of the input relation.

 rating 8(S2)
1.7
 Projection – Vertical Restriction
 Examples:  age(S2) ;  sname,rating(S2)
 Retains only attributes that are in the “projection list”.
 Schema of result:
 exactly the fields in the projection list, with the
same names that they had in the input relation.
 Projection operator has to eliminate duplicates
(How do they arise? Why remove them?)
 Note: real systems typically don’t do duplicate
elimination unless the user explicitly asks for it.
(Why not?)
1.8
 sname rating
Projection
yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
sid sname rating age  sname,rating (S 2)
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 age
S2 35.0
55.5
 age(S2)
1.9
 Review: Relational Algebra: 5 Basic
Operations
 Selection (

) Selects a subset of rows from relation
(horizontal).
 Projection ( ) Retains only wanted columns from relation
(vertical). 
 Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two relations.
 Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not in r2.

 Union ( ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)

1.10
 Nesting Operators
 Result of a Relational Algebra Operator is a Relation, so…
 Can use as input to another Relational Algebra Operator

sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 sname rating
31 lubber 8 55.5
yuppy 9
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 rusty 10

 sname,rating( rating 8(S2))

1.11
 Union and Set-Difference

 All of these operations take two input relations,

which must be union-compatible:
 Same number of fields.
 `Corresponding’ fields have the same type.

 For which, if any, is duplicate elimination

required?

1.12
 Union

sid sname rating age

sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 dustin 7 45.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 rusty 10 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 44 guppy 5 35.0
S1
28 yuppy 9 35.0
sid sname rating age S1 S2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
1.13
 Set Difference
sid sname rating age
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 S1 S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1

sid sname rating age sid sname rating age

28 yuppy 9 35.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 44 guppy 5 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
S2 – S1
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
1.14
 Cross-Product

 S1 x R1: Each row of S1 paired with each row of R1.

Q: How many rows in the result?

 Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1, with
field names `inherited’ if possible.
 May have a naming conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a
field with the same name.
 In this case, can use the renaming operator:

 (C(1 sid1, 5  sid2), S1 R1)

1.15
 Cross Product Example
S1 sid sname rating age R1
sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0

1.16
 Review: Relational Algebra: 5 Basic
Operations
 Selection (

) Selects a subset of rows from relation
(horizontal).
 Projection ( ) Retains only wanted columns from relation
(vertical). 
 Cross-product (x) Allows us to combine two relations.
 Set-difference (–) Tuples in r1, but not in r2.

 Union ( ) Tuples in r1 and/or in r2.

Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)

1.17
 Example Instances R1 sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
Sailing Database: 58 103 11/12/96
Sailors, Boats, Reserves
S1 sid sname rating age
bid bname color 22 dustin 7 45.0
101 Interlake blue 31 lubber 8 55.5
102 Interlake red 58 rusty 10 35.0
103 Clipper green
S2
104 Marine red
Boats
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
1.18
 Compound Operator: Intersection

 In addition to the 5 basic operators, there are

several additional “Compound Operators”
 These add no computational power to the
language, but are useful shorthands.
 Can be expressed solely with the basic ops.

Intersection takes two input relations, which must be

union-compatible.
 Q: How to express it using basic operators?

R  S = R  (R  S)
1.19
 Intersection

sid sname rating age

22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 sid sname rating age
58 rusty 10 35.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
S1 58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28
31
yuppy
lubber
9
8
35.0
55.5
S1 S2
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
S2
1.20
 Compound Operator: Join ( )
 Joins are compound operators involving cross product, selection,
and (sometimes) projection.

 Most common type of join is a “natural join” (often just called “join”).
R S conceptually is:
 Compute R X S
 Select rows where attributes that appear in both relations have
equal values
 Project all unique attributes and one copy of each of the common
ones.

 Note: Usually done much more efficiently than this.

 Useful for putting “normalized” relations back together.

1.21
 Natural Join Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day 22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

S1 R1 =

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96

1.22
 Other Types of Joins

 Condition Join (or “theta-join”):

 Result schema same as that of cross-

product.
 May have fewer tuples than cross-product.

 Equi-Join: Special case: condition c contains only conjunction

of equalities.

1.23
 “Theta” Join Example

sid bid day sid sname rating age

22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96

1.24
 Compound Operator: Division

 Useful for expressing “for all” queries like:

Find sids of sailors who have reserved all boats.

 For A/B attributes of B are subset of attrs of A.
 May need to “project” to make this happen.
 E.g., let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field
y:
A B   x  y  B( x, y  A)

A/B contains an x tuple such that for every y tuple in B, there is an xy

tuple in A.

1.25
 Examples of Division A/B
sno pno
s1 p1 pno
pno pno
s1 p2 p2
p2 p1
s1 p3 B1 p4 p2
s1 p4
p4
s2 p1 sno B2
s2 p2 s1 B3
s3 p2 s2 sno
s4 p2 s3 s1 sno
s4 p4 s4 s4 s1
A A/B1 A/B2 A/B3
Note: For relation instances A and B, A/B is the largest
relation instance Q such that B x Q  A
1.26
 Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators

 Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.

 (Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems implement joins
specially.)
 Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not `disqualified’ by some y
value in B.
 x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we obtain an xy tuple
that is not in A.

Disqualified x values:  x (( x ( A)  B)  A)

A/B:  x ( A)  Disqualified x values

1.27
Examples Reserves
sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
sid sname rating age
Sailors 22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0

Boats
bid bname color
101 Interlake Blue
102 Interlake Red
103 Clipper Green
104 Marine Red
1.28
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat
#103

 Solution 1:  sname (( Re serves)  Sailors)

bid 103

• Solution 2:

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96

1.29
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red
boat
 Information about boat color only available in Boats; so need an
extra join:

 sname (( Boats)  Re serves  Sailors)

color ' red '

 A more efficient (???) solution:

 A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

1.30
 Find names of sailors who’ve
reserved a red or a green boat

 Can identify all red or green boats, then find sailors who’ve
reserved one of these boats:

 (Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red '  color ' green '
 sname(Tempboats  Re serves  Sailors)

1.31
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green
boat

 Previous approach won’t work! Must identify sailors who’ve

reserved red boats, sailors who’ve reserved green boats, then find
the intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):

 (Tempred,  (( Boats)  Re serves))

sid color ' red '
 (Tempgreen,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' green'

 sname((Tempred  Tempgreen)  Sailors)

1.32
 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all
boats

 Uses division; schemas of the input relations to / must be

carefully chosen:

 (Tempsids, ( Re serves) / ( Boats))

sid, bid bid
 sname (Tempsids  Sailors)


To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:
..... / ( Boats)
bid bname ' Interlake'
1.33
 More Queries

 Find the color of boats reserved by “rusty”

 Find the names of sailors who reserved at least two different

boats

1.34
Multisets

1.35
SQL uses Multisets
Multiset X
Tuple
Multiset X
(1, a)

(1, a)

(1, b)

(2, c)
Equivalent
(2, c) Represent
(2, c)
ations of a Note: In a
Multiset set all
(1, d) counts are
(1, d) {0,1}.
1.36
 Generalizing Set Operations to Multiset
Operations

Multiset X Multiset Y Multiset Z

For sets, this

is
intersection

1.37
Generalizing Set Operations to Multiset
Operations

Multiset X Multiset Y Multiset Z

For sets,
this is
union
38
1.38
 Operations on Multisets
All RA operations need to be defined carefully on bags

 C(R): preserve the number of occurrences

 A(R): no duplicate elimination

 Cross-product, join: no duplicate elimination

This is important- relational
engines work on multisets, not
sets!
1.39
 RA has Limitations !

 Cannot compute “transitive closure”

Relationshi
Name1 Name2
p
Fred Mary Father
Mary Joe Cousin
Mary Bill Spouse
Nancy Lou Sister
 Find all direct and indirect relatives of Fred
 Cannot express in RA !!!
 Need to write C program, use a graph engine, or modern SQL…

1.40