3.

1 INTRODUCTION
Convection is one of the three basic mechanisms of heat transfer. It is a
heat transfer that takes place between moving fluid and solid surface.
Like conduction heat transfer, convection heat transfer requires material
medium. Heat transfer by convection combines heat transfer by
conduction and bulk flow of fluid.
Convection heat transfer depends on several parameters like:
 Fluid properties
 Dynamic viscosity, μ.
 Thermal conductivity, k.
 Density, ρ.
 Specific heat capacity, cp.
 Fluid velocity, v.
 Geometry of solid surface.
 Roughness of solid surface.
 Type of fluid flow (turbulent or laminar).
3.1 INTRODUCTION…
 The dependence of convection heat transfer on so many
variables makes it very complex and it is usually
determined experimentally.
 The convection heat transfer rate is given by Newton’s law
of cooling,
.
Q conv.  hA(Ts  T ) (3.1)
Where
h=convection heat transfer coefficient,
A=heat transfer surface area,
Ts=surface temperature,
T∞=fluid temperature far away from surface.
3.1 INTRODUCTION…
Non dimensional convection coefficient
The convection heat transfer coefficient, h, is
nondimensionalized to obtain the Nusselt number,
Nu.
h
Nu  (3.2)
k

Where k = thermal conductivity,

= characteristic length.
3.1 INTRODUCTION…
The Nusselt number can also be given as the ratio of
convection heat transfer rate to conduction heat
transfer rate.
Convection heat transfer rate
Nu 
Conduction heat transfer rate

.
Q conv.
Nu  . (3.3)
Q cond .
 3.2 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER

 is the value of y for

which u  0.99u


Fig. 3.1 Velocity boundary layer development over flat plate

3.2 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER…
 For external flows the velocity boundary layer concept provides
the basis for determining the local friction coefficient.
s
Cf 
1 2 (3.4)
u
2
 Where the surface shear stress for Newtonian fluid is obtained
from the relation,
u
s   (3.5)
y y 0

 The drag or friction force over the surface is determined by

u2 (3.6)
FD  C f A
2
 3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
t is the value of y for which the
ratio (Ts  T ) /(Ts  T )  0.99

Fig. 3.2 Thermal boundary layer development over isothermal flat plate
3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER…
 At any distance x from the leading edge, the local heat flux may be obtained by applying
Fourier’s law to the fluid at y= 0. That is,
T (3.7)
qs   k f
y y 0
 By combining equation (3.7) with Newton’s law of cooling we then obtain
T
kf
y (3.8)
y 0
h
Ts  T
 The relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layers is described by
Prandtl number,
Momentum diffusivity  CP
  Pr   
Heat diffusivity  k
 The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are related in terms of Prandtl number
as
t 1 (3.9)
 Pr 1
 1.026
3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER…

Fig. 3.3 Relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layers
3.4 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Fig.3.4 Laminar, transition and turbulent flow regions

3.4 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW…
 The location where the flow turns to turbulent is
determined by a dimensionless grouping of variables
called the Reynolds number.
Inertia forces u (3.10)
Re  
Vicous forces 
Where u∞=free stream velocity
=characteristic length of the geometry
=kinematic velocity of the fluid
 The critical Reynolds number at which flow turns to
turbulent is about 5x105.
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
 The friction and heat transfer coefficients for a flat plate can be
determined by solving the conservation of mass, momentum
and energy equations. The average Nusselt number can be
expressed as
hL m n (3.11)
Nu   C Re L Pr
k
Where C, m and n are constants and L is length of the plate.
 Generally, properties of the fluid vary with temperature. To
make the heat transfer analysis simple, properties are
evaluated at film temperature given by
Ts  T
Tf 
2 (3.12)
 In heat transfer analysis, we are usually interested in the heat
transfer and drag force on the entire surface of the plate which
are determined using the average heat transfer and friction
coefficients.
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
The local and average Nusselt number and friction
coefficient are determined for laminar and turbulent
flows separately,
Laminar flow
The boundary layer thickness
5x
 1
(3.13)
Re x 2
Local friction coefficient
x 0.664 (3.14)
C f ,x   1
1 / 2 u2 Re x 2
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Combining equations (3.9) and (3.13), the thermal
boundary layer thickness is given by
1 5x (3.15)
t   Pr 1 
1.026 1.026(Re1x/ 2 )(Pr)
 
Local Nusselt number

hx x 1 1
Nu x   0.332 Re x Pr 3
2 ( pr  0.6)
k (3.16)
Average friction coefficient
1.328
Cf  1 (3.17)
Re L 2
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Average Nusselt number
  hL 1 1
Nu   0.664 Re L 2 Pr 3
( pr  0.6)
k (3.18)
The critical Reynolds number

u xCr
ReCr   5  105

3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Turbulent flow
Local friction coefficient
0.0592
C f ,x  1
5 10 5
 Re x  107  (3.19)
Re x 5
Local Nusselt number
hx  0.6  pr  60 
(3.20)
4 1
Nu x  x  0.0296 Re x 5 Pr 3  
k  5 10 5  Re  10 7 
 x 
Average friction coefficient
0.074
Cf  1
5 10 5
 Re L  107  (3.21)
Re L 5

Average Nusselt number

 0.6  pr  60 
Nu 
hL
k
4 1
 0.037 Re L 5 Pr 3 
 5  105  Re  10 7

 (3.22)
 L 
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
For combined laminar and turbulent flow
0.074 1742
Cf  1

Re L
5 10 5
 Re L  10 7  (3.23)
Re 5
L

Nu 
hL
k
 4
1
 0.037 Re L 5 871 Pr 3
 0.6  pr  60

 5  105  Re  107


 (3.24)
 L 
The heat transfer rate is obtained from
.
Q conv.  hA(Ts  T ) (3.25)
Where
h
 Nu k
L
The drag force is calculated as
u2 (3.26)
FD  C f A
2
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Example 3.1
An electric air heater consists of a horizontal array of thin
metal strips that are each 10mm long in the direction of an
airstream that is in parallel flows over the top of the strips.
Each strip is 0.2m wide, and 25 strips are arranged side by
side, forming a continuous and smooth surface over which
the air flows at 2m/s. During operation each strip is
maintained at 5000C and the air is at 250C.
a. What is the rate of convection heat transfer from the first
strip? The fifth strip? The tenth strip? All the strips?
b. For air velocities at 3, 5, and 10 m/s, determine the
convection heat rates for all the locations of part (a).
Represent your results in tabular or bar graph form.
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Solution
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
Properties of air (Tf=535K, 1atm): =43.54x10-6m2/s,
k=0.0429W/m.K, Pr=0.683.
a)The location of transition is determined from
6
 43. 54  10
xc  5  105  5  105  10.9m
u 2
Since xc >>L=0.25m, the air flow is laminar over the entire
heater.. For the first strip,
Q1  h1 L  wTs  T 
where h1 is obtained from
k 1 1
h1  0.664 Re x Pr 3  53.8w / m 2 K
2
. L
Then Q1  51.1w
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
for the
.
fifth strip,
.
Q 5  Q0  5  Q 0  4
.
Q 5  h0  5 5L  wTs  T   h0  4 4L  wTs  T 
k 1 1
h05  0.664 Re x 0.05 Pr 3  24.1w / m 2 K and
2
5L
k 1 1
h0 4  0.664 Re x 0.04 2 Pr 3  26.9 w / m 2 K
. 4L
 Q 5  12.2 w
In similar
.
manner for the tenth strip and entire 25 strips,
Q10  h0 10 10L  wTs  T   h0  9 9L  wTs  T   8.3w
.
Q 0  25  h0  25 L  wTs  T   255.3w
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES…
b) heat transfer rate, w
velocity,
m/s first strip fifth strip tenth strip entire strip
2 51.08 12.06 8.29 255.39
5 80.76 19.06 13.11 403.80
10 114.20 26.96 18.53 571.06
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
The average Nusselt number for flow over a
cylinder is given empirically as proposed by
Churchill and Bernstein:
4
1
0.62 Re Pr   Re  
1 5 5
hD 2 3 8
Nu   0.3  1    
k 1
28200 (3.27)
1   
 0.4 3   
2

Pr 
4   

Equation (3.26) is applicable for conditions where

Re.Pr > 0.2. The fluid properties are evaluated at
film temperature .
Ts  T
Tf 
2
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
The average Nusselt number for flow over a cylinder can
be expressed in compact form as
hD m
1
Nu   C Re Pr 3
k (3.28)
Where the constants C and m are obtained from table 3.1.
Heat transfer to or from a bank (or bundle) of tubes in
cross flow is relevant to numerous industrial
applications, such as steam generation in a boiler or air
cooling in the coil of an air conditioner.
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Table 3.1 Constants used in equation (3.28)
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
The tube rows of a bank are either staggered or aligned in
the direction of the fluid velocity V (Fig. 3.6)

Fig. 3.5 Tube bank in cross flow

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…

Fig. 3.6 Aligned and staggered tube arrangement

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
For airflow across tube bundles composed of 10 or
more rows (NL10), the average Nusselt number can
be obtained by the Grimison correlation,
 N L  10 
hD  
Nu   C1 Re mD ,max  2000  Re D ,max  40, 000
k
Pr  0.7 
(3.29)

The constants C1 and m are obtained from table 3.2.

 The maximum Reynolds number is given by
Vmax D
Re D ,max  (3.30)

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
For the aligned arrangement the maximum velocity, Vmax
occurs at the transverse plane A1 of Fig. 3.6a and is given for
an incompressible fluid as
ST
Vmax  V
ST  D (3.31)
For the staggered configuration, the maximum velocity may
occur at either the transverse plane A1 or the diagonal plane
A2 . It will occur at A2 if theS rows
 D are spaced such that
2( S D  D)  (ST  D) or S D  T
2
Where SD is given by
1
 2  ST  2 2

S D  S L    
  2  
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
 And
(3.32) ST
Vmax  V
2S Dthe
 If S >(S +D)/2,  D maximum velocity occurs at A and is given
D T 1
by equation (3.31).
 For flow of fluids other than air equation (3.28) is modified by
inserting 1.13Pr1/3.
 N L  10 
(3.33) hD m
1  
Nu   1.13C1 Re D ,max Pr 3  2000  Re D , max  40, 000 
k
Pr  0.7 
 All the properties in these equations are evaluated at film
temperature. If NL<10 a correction factor given in table 3.3 is
used as
(3.34)
Nu N L 10  C2 Nu N
L 10
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Table 3.2 Constants used in equations (3.29) and (3.33)
 3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Table 3.3 Constant C2 used in equation (3.34)
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
The heat transfer rate could be more predicted by using the
log mean temperature difference instead of using T=Ts-T∞.
(3.35) Tlm 
Ts  Ti   Ts  To 
lnTs  Ti  / Ts  To 
 Where Ti and To are temperatures of the fluid as it enters and leaves
the bank, respectively.
The outlet temperature, which is needed to determine T
lm
may be estimated from
Ts  To  DNh 
(3.36)  exp  
Ts  Ti  VN T ST c P 
 Where N is the total number of tubes in the bank , N T is the number
of tubes in the transverse plane and V is the speed at inlet.
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Once Tlm is known, the heat transfer rate may be
computed
.
from
Q  N hDLTlm 
(3.37)
For flows over a sphere, the average Nusselt number can
be obtained by the Whitaker correlation,
1
(3.38)
hD  1 2 
 0.4   4
Nu   2  0.4 Re 2  0.06 Re 3 Pr  
k    s 
Equation (3.37) is valid for 3.5≤Re≤ 80,000 and
0.7≤Pr≤380. The fluid properties are evaluated at film
temperature except s which is evaluated at the surface
temperature, Ts.
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Example 3.2
A preheater involves the use of condensing steam at
1000C on the inside of bank of tubes to heat air that
enters at 1atm and 250C. The air moves at 5m/s in
cross flow over the tubes. Each tube is 1m long and
has an outside diameter of 10mm. The bank consists
of 196 tube in a square, aligned array for which
ST=SL=15mm. What is the total rate of heat transfer to
the air’?
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Solution
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
Atmospheric air (T∞=298K):=15.8x10-6m2/s,
k=0.0263W/mK, Pr=0.707, cp=1007J/kgK, =1.17kg/m3;
(Ts=373K): Pr=0.695
The. total heat
Ts transfer
Ti   Ts  Torate

Q  hNDL  hNDLTlm
lnTs  Ti  / Ts  To 
ST 15 15  0.01
Vmax  V   5  15m / s, Re D ,max  6
 9494
ST  D 5 15.8  10

From tables 3.2 and 3.3, C = 0.27, m = 0.63 and C 2=0.99.

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES…
From the Zhukauskas correlation
Nu D  0.99  0.279494 0.707 0.36 0.707 / 0.6951/ 4  75.9
0.63

h  Nu D k / D  75.9  0.0263 / 0.01  200W / m 2 .K

 DN h 
Ts  To  Ts  Ti exp  
 VN S c 
 T T p 

   0.01196  200 
 75 exp  
 1.17  5 14  0.015  1007 
 27.7 0 C
Hence, Q  hNDLTlm  200 196  0.011 75  27.7  58.5kW
.

ln 75 / 27.7 
 3.7 FLOW IN TUBES

Fig. 3.7 Hydrodynamic boundary layer development in tube

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…

Fig. 3.8 Thermal boundary layer development in tube

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube is
defined as u D
Re D  m
(3.39)

Where ρ is the fluid density
D is tube diameter
 is fluid dynamic viscosity
um is the. average fluid velocity given by
m (3.40)
um 
.
A
Wherem is mass flow rate of fluid.
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
In a fully developed flow the critical Reynolds
number is 2300.
The pressure drop 2
during the flow is given by
L u m
P  f
D 2 (3.41)
Where f is the friction factor and L is tube length
For laminar and turbulent flows the hydrodynamic
entry lengths may be obtained from
(3.42)
x fd ,h  0.05 Re D D
lam

(3.43)
x fd ,h  10 D
turb
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
For laminar and turbulent flows the thermal entry
lengths may be obtained from
x fd ,t
lam
 0.05 Re D Pr D (3.44)

x fd ,t  10 D (3.45)
turb

Laminar flow
For hydrodynamically developed laminar flow in a
tube, the velocity profile is profile is parabolic and
given by
r2
u ( r )  2u m (1  2 ) (3.46)
ro
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
And the surface shear stress is
du 8u m (3.47)
 s  2 
dr r ro D
The surface shear stress can also be written as
u m2
s  Cf
2 (3.48)
It follows from equations (3.46) and (3.47) that the
friction coefficient Cf can be given as
16
Cf 
Re D (3.49)
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
The friction factor f used in the pressure drop
calculation in laminar flow is given by
64
f 
Re D (3.50)
The average Nusselt number for the
hydrodynamically or thermally developed laminar
flow is given by Sider13 and0.Tate 14
hD  Re Pr D    b 
Nu   1.86    (3.51)
k  L   s 
All the properties are evaluated at bulk mean fluid
temperature, except for s, which is evaluated at the
surface temperature.
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Turbulent flow
The friction factor for fully developed turbulent flow in a
smooth tube is given by
f  0.184 Re D0.2 (3.52)
For flows in smooth or rough tubes the friction factor is
obtained from Moody diagram of Fig. 3.9.
The friction factor can be obtained from the Colebrook
equation for flows in smooth or rough tubes in transition and
turbulent flows.
1   .D 2.51  (3.53)
 2.0 log 
f  3.7 Re f 

 The average Nusselt number for turbulent flow in a tube is
given from the Chilton-Colburn correlation as
1 (3.54)
Nu D  0.125 f Re Pr 3
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…

Fig. 3.9 The Moody Diagram

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Table 3.4 Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts
Material Condition ε (mm)
Steel Sheet metal, new 0.05
Stainless, new 0.002
Commercial, new 0.046
Riveted 3.0
Rusted 2.0
Iron Cast, new 0.26
Wrought, new 0.046
Galvanized, new 0.15
Asphalted cast 0.12
Brass Drawn, new 0.002
Plastic Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass - 0 (smooth)
Concrete Smoothed 0.04
Rough 2.0
Rubber Smoothed 0.01
Wood Stave 0.5
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Example 3.3
An engine oil cooler consists of a bundle of 25 smooth
tubes, each of length L=2.5m and diameter of
D=110mm.
a) If oil at total flow rate of 24kg/s is in fully developed
flow through the tubes, what are the power drop and
the pump power requirements?
b) Compute and plot the pressure drop and pump
power requirement as a function of flow rate for 10-
30kg/s.
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Solution

Properties of Engine oil (300 K): =884kg/m3,

μ=0.486kg/s.m.
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
a) Considering flow through a single tube
.
4m 4  24
Re D    251.5
D 25  0.01  0.486

Hence, the flow is laminar and

64 64
f   0.2545
Re D 251.5
.
m1 24 / 25
um    13.8m / s
 2
 
 D / 4 884  0.01 / 4
2

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
The pressure drop is,
u m2 884  13.82
p  f L  0.2545   2.5  5.38  106 N / m 2  5.38Mpa
2D 2  0.01
The pump power required is
.
. m 6 24
P  p V  p  5.38  10   146 kw
 884
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
b) Plot of pressure drop and pump power
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Example 3.4
Water at 150C (=999.1kg/m3 and =1.138x10-3 kg/ms) is
flowing in a 4cm diameter and 30m long horizontal
pipe made of new stainless steel steadily at a rate of
5L/s. Determine (a) the pressure drop and (b) the
pumping power requirement to overcome this
pressure drop.

Water D = 4 cm
5 L/s

L = 30 m
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
Solution
The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be
(=999.1kg/m3 and =1.138x10-3 kg/ms, respectively. The
roughness of new stainless steel is 0.002 mm (Table 3.4).
First we calculate the mean velocity and the Reynolds
number to determine the flow regime:
V V 0.005 m 3 / s
Vm     3.98 m / s
Ac D 2 / 4  (0.04 m) 2 / 4
Vm D (999.1 kg/m 3 )(3.98 m/s)(0.04 m)
Re    1.40  10 5
  3
1.138  10 kg/m  s

which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is

turbulent.
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
The relative roughness of the pipe is
2  10 6 m
/D  5  10 5
0.04 m

The friction factor can be determined from the Moody

chart, but to avoid the reading error, we determine it
from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver
(or an iterative scheme),
1  / D 2.51  1  5  10 5 2.51 
 2.0 log     2.0 log  
f  3.7 Re f  f  3 .7 1.40  10 5 f 
  
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES…
It gives f = 0.0171. Then the pressure drop and the required
power input become
(a) 2
L ρVm
ΔP  f
D 2
kg/m 3 )(3.98
30m (999.1 m/s 2  1
kN  1kPa 
 0.0171 
 1000 
 1 2 
0.04m 2  kg  ms  kN/m 
 101.5kPa
(b) W  3  1 kW 
pump,u  VP  (0.005 m / s )(101.5 kPa ) 3
  0.508 kW
 1 kPa  m /s 
Therefore, useful power input in the amount of 0.508 kW is
needed to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.