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Lecture 4

Structural geology is the study of rock structures and their deformation histories. It aims to understand stress fields that caused strain and rock geometries. Structural geology is important for engineering projects and environmental studies, as rock structures can impact stability, groundwater flow, and contaminant movement. There are three main fault types - normal, reverse, and strike-slip - which describe the relative motion of fault blocks. Folds form when rock layers are bent, and include anticlines, synclines, and monoclines. Key fold features are hinges, limbs, crests, and troughs.

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Faisal Mansoor Awan
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12 views

Lecture 4

Structural geology is the study of rock structures and their deformation histories. It aims to understand stress fields that caused strain and rock geometries. Structural geology is important for engineering projects and environmental studies, as rock structures can impact stability, groundwater flow, and contaminant movement. There are three main fault types - normal, reverse, and strike-slip - which describe the relative motion of fault blocks. Folds form when rock layers are bent, and include anticlines, synclines, and monoclines. Key fold features are hinges, limbs, crests, and troughs.

Uploaded by

Faisal Mansoor Awan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Structural Geology

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
• Structural Geology is the study of the three dimensional
distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational
histories.
• The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements
of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the
history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and
geometries.
IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

• Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is


concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural
rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations
and joints are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the
stability of human engineered structures such as dams, road cuts,
open pit mines and underground mines or road tunnels.

• Geotechnical risk, including earthquake risk can only be


investigated by inspecting a combination of structural geology and
geomorphology.
.
IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
• Environmental geologists and hydro geologists or
hydrologists need to understand structural geology because
structures are sites of groundwater flow and penetration,
which may affect, for instance, seepage of toxic substances
from waste dumps, or seepage of salty water into aquifers.
FAULTS
• A fault is a fracture across which two blocks have slipped; the
displacement of adjacent blocks is parallel to the fault plane.
• Faulting corresponds to the brittle failure of an under formed
rock formation or, alternatively, involves frictional sliding on a
pre-existing fault plane.
• Faulting occurs when the maximum differential stress
(maximum stress minus minimum stress) exceeds the shear
strength of an intact rock formation, or the frictional strength of
a pre-existing fault.
TYPES OF FAULTS

There are three types of faults


• Normal faults: (Gravity )
• Reverse faults: (Thrust )
• Strike-slip faults: (Transverse)
NORMAL FAULTS

• The hanging wall moves down the dip of the fault relatively
to the footwall
• Tectonic regime in extension (the largest stress axis is
vertical).
• The fault plane usually makes a high angle with the surface
(> 45 degrees).
• Also known as gravity fault.
REVERSE FAULTS
• The hanging wall moves up the dip of the fault relatively to
the footwall
• Tectonic regime in compression (the smallest stress axis is
vertical).
• The fault plane usually makes a low angle with the surface (<
45 degrees).
• Also known as thrust fault.
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS

• The blocks move horizontally past one another.


• Probably the most well known and well studied fault of this
type is known as the San Andreas Fault of California. This
fault is on the boundary between the Pacific and North
American Plates. Actually anything crossing this fault zone is
either slowly torn apart, or offset. These faults can be very
long; the San Andreas is nearly 600 mile long.
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES

• Hanging Wall:
The surface of block that is on top of the plane of the fault.
• Footwall:
The surface or block that lies below the plane of the fault.
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES

• Strike:
The direction in which the fault runs. Strike of the fault is the
trend of a horizontal line in the plane of the fault.
• Dip:
Dip is the angle between a horizontal surface and the plane of
the fault and is measured in a vertical plane that strikes at right
angles to the fault. The dip direction is perpendicular to the
strike direction.
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES

• Throw:
The throw of a fault is the vertical component of the apparent
displacement of a bed, measured along direction of dip of the
fault.
• Heave:
The heave of a fault, in a like manner, is the horizontal
component of the apparent displacement. It is also known as
gape.
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES

• Graben:
When a block of rock falls between two faults. Huge,
relatively flat bottomed valleys, like Death Valley in
California, are created in this way.
• Horst:
When a block of rock is pushed up between two faults. Large
plateau surfaces form in this fashion.
FAULT TERMINOLOGIES
Fold

• The term fold is used in geology when one or a stack of


originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata,
are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation.
• Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic
pressure, pore pressure, and temperature.
Fold types

There are three types of folds


• Anticlines
• Synclines
• Monocline
Anticlines:
• This is when layers are folded upwards in what looks like an
arch.
• The layers are symmetrical (look alike) to either side of its
center.
• Rock layers in anticlines dip away from the center axis.
• The oldest rocks are exposed on the center axis.
Synclines

•This is when the rock layers are folded downward.


• Rock layers in synclines dip towards the center axis.
• The youngest layers of rock are exposed on the center axis.
Monocline

• This is when the rock layer has a gently dipping bend in the
horizontal rock layer.
Fold terminologies
• Hinge
It is the line of maximum curvature for a fold. The hinge may
be horizontal, inclined or vertical
• Axial plane
It the surface defined by connecting all the hinge lines
• Limbs
The sides of the fold are called limbs or flanks
Fold terminologies
Fold terminologies
• Crest
It is the highest point of the fold surface
• Trough
It is the lowest point of the fold surface
Fold types
• Symmetrical folds
If two limbs dip away from axis with the same angle.
Fold types
• Asymmetrical folds
If two limbs dip away from axis at different angles.
Fold types
• Isoclinal folds
The limbs have the same and equal direction
Fold types
• Overturned folds
Axial plane is inclined and both limbs in the same direction.
Fold types
• Recumbent folds
Overturned fold with an axial plane is nearly horizontal.

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