Socio-cultural System and Multiculturalism

By
Muhammed Seid
MA in Political Science and International Studies
Wolkite University
2014 E.C.
 Chapter one
Basic Concepts of Culture and Diversity
Outlines of the Chapter
 Defining the concepts of Culture  Overview of diversity
 Elements of culture
 Expression of diversity
 Dealing with diversity
 Manifestations of culture
 Elimination of diversity
 Layers of culture
 Assimilation/homogenization
 Culture and society
 Partition/secession
 Characteristics of culture
 Forced mass transfer
 Socio-cultural structure
 Genocide
 Theories of socio-cultural structure
 Management of diversity
 Primordial
 Territorial autonomy/federalism
 Instrumental
 Non territorial
 Constructivist
autonomy/Consociationalism
 Ethno-cultural groups and their demands
 Multiculturalism
 Defining and Explaining Culture
Culture is learned behaviors that are shared We live it and may cause some distress when
by the members of a society, together with we are out of our culture.
the material products of such behaviors.
Culture have attributes: that include familial,
Culture refers to the ensemble of art, food, linguistic, religious, spiritual, aesthetic,
dress and other aesthetic variations that socioeconomic, educational, dietary, gender
distinguish one social group from another. etc.
It is the complex system and behavior that Culture helps us:
defines the society's way of life
To develop sense of belongingness
Culture is a totality of learned behaviors in
the context of a social system (Slonim, 1991) To hold society together cohesively
Culture includes knowledge, belief, art, To develop moral values for individual
morals, law, custom, and any other capacities and groups action
and habits acquired by individuals as To guide the day to day lives of the
members of a society society
It is all about the characteristics of that
individual’s society or some subgroup within
that society
 Elements of Culture
A. Language Norms are the specific cultural expectations of
Language is a set of symbols and rules that, how to behave in a given situation.
put together in a meaningful way, provides a Society without norms would be chaos;
Complex communication system, With norms in place, people know how to act,
The formation of culture among humans is and social interactions are consistent,
made possible by language, predictable and Learnable.
Learning the language of a culture is C. Beliefs
essential to becoming part of a society, And Beliefs are shared ideas held collectively by
it is one of the first things children learn. peoples within a given culture.
B. Norms Shared beliefs are part of what binds People
Norms are a set of rules which define the together in society.
role of different individuals in social Beliefs are also the basis for many of the
institutions. norms and values of a given culture.
They are explicit or implicit criteria that D. Values
guide members in their conduct when they
perform their respective role Values are the abstract standards in a society
or group that define ideal principles.
 CONT.
Values define what is desirable and morally Layers of culture
correct; thus, values determine what is Most commonly there are three layers of
considered right and wrong, beautiful and culture, these layers seen as onion layers
ugly, good and bad. The outer layer:
Although values are abstract, they provide a  It is consist of explicit manifestation of
general outline for behavior. cultures e.g. clothing’s languages etc.
Value is a standard or a principle which The middle layer:
human beings use to justify or oppose a  Refers to the norms and values which a
course of action. community holds, e.g. what is right or
This mental phenomenon is apparently wrong, good or bad etc.
characteristic of man because he is rational The inner (core) layer:
and moral being.  It is consisting of basic assumptions,
It is by values that we judge action in terms serious rules and methods to deal with the
of what ought or ought not to be done, of regular problems of the community.
what is right or wrong.  Better understanding of the inner layer of
In other words, they are shorthand mental culture is the key to successfully work with
codes for deciding what is desirable other cultures.
 ASPECTS OF CULTURE
Explicit Aspects Implicit Aspects
Features of a culture that can be observed Those are features of a culture that cannot be
explicitly and considered as a typical practice explicitly manifested.
of a particular culture They are a behavioral orientations and
worldly views of cultural groups
Explicit aspects of culture includes language, Implicit aspects of culture-equally important;
dressing style, food habits, religion, aesthetic habits often invisible to us and
conventions taught deliberately and learned This implicit aspect of culture identifies what
It includes the styles of dressing, dancing, is proper or improper (moral/immoral)
and forms of aesthetic (beauty).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
When we discuss about culture we have to The meaning is not inherent with the symbol
know about its characteristics for our better but bestowed by the people.
understanding. Culture varies across time and place
Culture is shared Culture is not the same from place to another
An act to be a culture it must be collectively and through time it can be changed from its
experienced and mutually agreed up on by classical form.
the group.
Culture is learned
Culture is learned from family or the society
either directly through formal or informal
teaching or indirectly by observation and
imitation.
Culture is taken for granted
If we stop practicing our culture and become
out of it, we will not be effective in our day
to day function with the group.
Culture is symbolic
Symbols are things or behaviors to which
peoples give meaning,
 SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Defining Society Ethnicity and Ethnic Group
 Society is a collection of an interdependent
 Ethnicity: is an individual’s sense of
organisms of peoples with a shared
identification and provides a sense of
historical coexistence.
 Society is a group of peoples who:
belonging to a reference group (Slonim,
1991)
 Share common culture,
 Ethnicgroup: is a cultural group with a sense
 Have a well established institutions,
 Hold norms and values that regulate their of peoplehood, shared history, common
relationship. ancestry, and common set of political and
 Peoples
economic interests
to be a society they:
 Should A group of people who share a similar culture
live together for some considerable
time (beliefs, values, and behaviors), language,
 Should have common cultural manifestation religion, ancestry, or other characteristic that
 Should have an institution that will manage is often handed down from one generation to
their relationship the next.
 Socio-Cultural Structure/System Ethno cultural groups and their demand
Socio cultural structure is the organized Ethno cultural community or group: is a
pattern of social and cultural relationship and collection of individuals defined by the
institutions that creates cohesive and shared characteristics unique to, and
organized society. recognized by, that group.
A sociocultural system is a physical and/or This includes characteristics such as cultural
theoretical structure where humans interact in traditions, ancestry, language, national
society using their culture. identity, country of origin and/or physical
They are the structure for where humans traits.
share (social) experiences (culture) which can Ethno cultural groups: are organizations
then be learned from used to their advantage which facilitate cultural unity and
in order to better their society. development for ethnic, language, and visible
minorities through a variety of programs
 Main components of a sociocultural system:
1. Economic system (Pastoral/Agriculture) These groups may use diverse social
2. Political organization (kingdom/chiefdom) activities, sports, language based resources
3. Social structure (Kinship/parental system) and libraries as well as advocacies for the
4. Belief system (Monotheism/polytheism) promotion and preservation of cultural rights,
5. Arts and leisure (Recreation/festivals) interests, and cooperation.
 THEORIES OF SOCIOCULTURAL STRUCTURE
Primordial  For them, identity will be constructed and
 Primordialist theoricians assume social identity reconstructed
as something inherently exist in individuals Instrumentalist
blood  Defines identity as something used as an
 Analysts stressing a primordial view of organizing force for the purposes of
ethnicity regard group identities as fixed or advancing the group’s broad socio-
essential in character. economic interests.
 Social identities are essential and enduring, or  Thus, groups adhere to collective identities

primordial in nature chiefly as a means of claiming resources

Constructivist or defending a perceived material interests.
 Defines collective identity as an outcome of
social construction
 For them, identity is not an inherent natural
phenomena, rather it is a gradual social
construction.
 Diversity
 Diversity is the co-existence of individuals The recognition and encouragement of ethnic diversity
or groups that holds various cultural may help build the country and have a quite positive
backgrounds and identities in an impact on social cohesion,
organizational or regional or national level. This needs a provision of a sufficient degree of social
“Diversity: the art of thinking inclusion and equal participation are assured.
independently together” There are two types of dealing patterns with diversity with
(Malcoln Stevenson, American Publisher) their own subclasses
 Eliminating Diversity
“ If we cannot now end our differences, at  It is a process of dominating minority culture by the
least we can help make the world safe for mainstream culture
diversity”  We can eliminate diversity using different mechanisms
(J.F. Kennedy, 35th US president)  Managing Diversity
 It is a process of maintaining diversity instead of
 Countries like Ethiopia have diversified
dominating minority cultures by the mainstream culture
society with diversified cultural background
 There are also mechanisms to maintain cultural diversity
having mutual sense of Ethiopian
nationality.
 PATTERNS OF DEALING WITH DIVERSITY
1. Elimination of Diversity Genocide is the act of avoiding minorities and
In this pattern the dominant culture treat their culture using assassination and mass killing;
minorities in destructive and negative manner It is the most usual method of eliminating
There are also sub variants of this category minorities.
Assimilation: Subjugation:


 Assimilation Subjugation is a situation when the dominant

is taking of the dominant
cultural characteristics by minority groups culture hold minorities as slave or oppression that
is likely to slavery.
avoiding their own original culture.
2. Management of Diversity
Partition /secession: In this pattern the dominant culture and

 Partition is when minorities prefer to be
minorities will have cooperative or positive
independent from the dominant culture and relationship.
secede to eliminate diversity. Territorial autonomy/federalism:
Relocation/forced mass population: Is giving minorities with the autonomous right of
 Relocation is the action of forceful moving of self-administration
minorities from one area to another area to Non-territorial autonomy /Consociationalism:
Giving autonomy for minorities to express
avoid cultural plurality.
themselves and share power but not based on
Genocide/extermination:
territory
 CONT.

Multiculturalism: Cultural Pluralism

 Multiculturalism is the direct opposition
The notion that groups should be allowed and
even encouraged to hold on what gives them
of assimilation. their unique identities while maintaining their
Multiculturalism is a platform in which membership in the larger social framework.
government follows different policies
It does not advocate separatism instead
that will be used for positive treatment of
promotes diversity
diversified society.
Multiculturalism is a world view that It is not an approach of a melting pot method
of creating identical culture rather, rather it is
rejects the global centrality of any single
an endeavor of creating a salad bowl societal
culture or historical perspective mixture (unity with uniqueness!)
A principle and approach, or a set of
The freedom to choose one’s way of life is
rules of conduct that guides the
only meaningful if we have options to choose
interactions of peoples and influences the from, and the social thesis tells us that these
perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and options come from our culture.
behaviors of people from diverse cultural
backgrounds
 MULTICULTURALISM
 It is acceptance/promotion of multiple ethnic The Purpose of Multiculturalism
cultures, as a demographic make-up of a  Multiculturalism is a multifaceted,
specific place, usually at organizational level, organizational, change-oriented strategy
aimed at goals like:
e.g. schools, businesses, cities or nations. 1. Fostering cultural equity
 Thus, it is an advocacy of giving equitable
2. Empowerment of students, parents, and
status to ethnic groups without promoting any teachers from diverse cultural orientation
specific ethnic, religious, and/or cultural 3. Facilitating development of society
community values as central characterized by values of cultural
 It has various forms, but generally presented as pluralism
an alternative to “assimilation” approaches 4. Creating understanding and harmony in
prevalent in the past. classroom, school and community
 It is a social philosophy and policy suggests 5. Maintenance and expansion of freedom and
democracy
that, to shape a cohesive society of diverse 6. Enabling societies to have a knowledge of
ethnic/cultural groups, it is better to recognize diverse cultural and ethnic groups
and value diversity, than downplaying 7. Equipping all staffs, parents and students
diversity, or to casting all groups within one with multicultural perspective
single cultural mold.
 CHAPTER TWO
FOUNDATIONS AND PILLARS OF MULTICULTURALISM
Outlines of the Chapter
FOUNDATIONS OF MULTICULTURALISM
Philosophical Foundation
Empirical Foundation
PERSPECTIVES OF MULTICULTURALISM
Liberalism
Communitarianism
PILLARS OF MULTICULTURALISM
Acceptance/Recognition
Respect
Tolerance
Institutionalization
Valuing diversity
Equality and egalitarian society
THE MODERN STATE AND ISSUES OF MULTICULTURALISM
Nation-state and citizenship
Individualism and Universal citizenship
Group right and differential citizenship
 FOUNDATIONS OF MULTICULTURALISM
 Multiculturalism generally refers to a theoretical approaches and a number of
policies adopted in Western nation-states, which had seemingly achieved a de
facto single national identity during the 18th and/or 19th centuries.
 As a result, there are foundations of multiculturalism

1. Theoretical/Philosophical Foundation

2. Empirical Foundation
 CONT.
Philosophical/Theoretical Foundation …
 As a philosophical foundation,  Charles Sanders Peirce
multiculturalism began as:  William James
 Part of the pragmatism movement at the end  George Santayana
of the nineteenth century in Europe and the  Horace Kallen
United States,  John Dewey
 Then as political and cultural pluralism at the  W. E. B. Du Bois and
turn of the twentieth.  Alain Locke developed concepts of cultural
 It was partly in response to a new wave of pluralism,
European imperialism in sub-Saharan Africa  From their concepts emerged what we
and the massive immigration of Southern and understand today as multiculturalism
Eastern Europeans to the United States and  In Pluralistic Universe (1909), William James
Latin America. espoused the idea of a "plural society."
 Philosophers, psychologists, historians and  James saw pluralism as "crucial to the formation
early sociologists such as: of philosophical and social humanism to help
build a better, and more egalitarian society
 CONT.
 Thus, multiculturalism has been advocated  Taylor (1994) argued that ethnic identity is
by political philosophers on moral grounds. inherently political, resulting in a demand for
 For them, individuals have the right to official recognition and acknowledgement.
maintain their cultural communities, and
governments have a moral obligation to
avoid or offset cultural biases inherent in
state institutions.
 Multiculturalism as a social philosophy and
as a policy suggests that, in an attempt to
shape a cohesive society from diverse ethnic
and cultural groups, it is better to recognize
and value that diversity, and not seek to
downplay diversity, or to cast all groups
within one single cultural mold.
 CONT.
Empirical (Policy) Foundation …
 Suchquestions are heard in the traditional
 Multiculturalism policy incited by the
immigration countries, such as:
presence of demographically very significant  United States
immigrant populations,  Canada and
 International migration in the contemporary  Australia
 Also in European countries which have more or
world has been dramatically increased the
ethno-cultural and racial diversity of many less reluctantly become countries of immigration
modern industrial societies such as:
 United Kingdom
 This has raised a serious of questions in terms  France

of their socio-cultural impact, like: 
Germany and
Netherlands
 Are immigrants are an asset and resource
 Or in other countries most recently experiencing
contributing to the strength and vitality of a
society? a significant number of new immigrants such as:
 Italy
or  Spain
 Are they a threat challenging the viability and  Ireland and
long-term cohesiveness of those societies?  Sweden
 CONT.
 So, the so-called traditional immigration  These policies were provided to ensure that a
countries, mainly the United States, Canada, sufficient degree of social inclusion and equal
Australia and New Zealand, have developed participation are assured.
extensive policies along these lines,  Canada’s interest in, and formal adoption of,
 The newer countries of immigration in multiculturalism policy in 1971 is an
Europe and Asia have been encouraged to additional response to diversity.
adopt them, and in many cases have done so.  The Canadian policy, which was introduced
 Those policies formulated with the view that by Prime Minister Pierre in a speech to
in the interests of national unity, newcomers Parliament, offered recognition and support
need not to be required to “assimilate” to for ethnic groups as social entities; it quickly
shed their previous identities and culture, received all-party support
 Rather, the recognition and encouragement of
ethnic diversity is vital to build the country
and have a quite positive impact on social
cohesion
 Perspectives of Multiculturalism
 There are major lines of argument in the  One argues pro and the other against
theoretical debate on multiculturalism recognition of ethnic culture membership as
among philosophers and political theorists essential for both personal identity
developments, inclusion in the wider society
 The debate is whether political, economic,
and for social mobility.
and social justice should be understood,  Communitarians tend to hold on to the
and further granted, in terms of group primary ontological status of social
membership or not. communities when it comes to the identity-
 There are two contending perspectives shaping of individuals
regarding the issue of multiculturalism  Liberalists’ tend to deny the communitarian
A. Communitarian stress on socio-cultural dimensions and also
B. Libertarian the social ontology backing it.
 Both of the positions, however, tend to see
culture as ’ethnic-culture’.
 CONT.
Communitarian
 They argue that being recognized as a
…
member of another culture than the majority
 where citizens learn respect for others as
culture is necessary and imperative for the well as for self
identity-building of ethnic minority  where we acquire a lively sense of our
individuals. personal and civic responsibilities
A Communitarian perspective simultaneously  Where we appreciate our own rights and
recognizes: the right of others;
 Both individual and human dignity  where we develop the skills of self-
& government as well as the habit of
 The social dimension of human existence.
governing ourselves
A Communitarian perspectives recognizes
 Where we learn to serve others-not just
that the preservation of individual liberty self.
depends on the active maintenance of the  Communitarian perspective also recognizes
institutions of civil society/community
that communities and polities, have
obligations-including:
 CONT.
 To be responsive to their members  The success of a democratic experiment in
 To foster participation and deliberation in social ordered liberty (rather than unlimited
and political life. license) depends not on fiat or force,
 A communitarian perspective does not dictate a  Rather it will be achieved on building shared
particular policy; rather, it dictates attention to values, habits, and practices that assure
what is often ignored in contemporary policy respect for one another’s rights and regular
debates such as: fulfillment of personal, civic, and collective
 The social side of human nature;
responsibilities.
 The responsibilities that must be accepted by  Communitarians favor strong democracy:
citizens, individually and collectively, in a  That is, we seek to make government more
regime of rights representative, more participatory, and more
 The fragile ecology of families and their responsive to all members of the community
supporting communities;  Generally, the remedy for emancipation of
 The ripple effects and long-term consequences oppressed groups is to accept and embrace
of present decisions. minority peoples’ cultural specificity and
 Communitarians are not majoritarian, but group-based rights,
strongly democratic.
CONT.
 CONT.
Libertarian …
 Liberalism is a doctrine that is profoundly
 Peoples are not required to live by values
sympathetic to multiculturalism
they cannot abide, nor forbidden to live by
 Because, it is a doctrine which proclaims the
values they cherish.
importance of individual freedom to live a life of
one’s own, even if the majority of society  Liberals have therefore argued vigorously
disapproves of the way that life is lived. among themselves about the basis upon
 Liberalists typically focus on materialist which people’s pursuit of their different,
explanations for social exclusion and and potentially conflicting, purposes should
marginalization of ethnic minorities, and propose a be regulated.
less dialogical, and more individual-centered and
equality-based approach.
 The most famous liberal attempt to specify
 According to liberalism’s traditions, minority ways,
a basis for such regulation is John Stuart
or difference, are to be tolerated rather than
Mill’s harm principle:
suppressed.  Only the prospect of harm to others can
 By implication, this means that minority cultures justify the restriction of individual freedom
are accepted within a liberal society: to pursue particular ends.
 CONT.
 Liberals takes seriously the idea that, when  For liberalists, the remedy for emancipation
peoples disagree about what is good and of oppressed groups is:
what is right, the issue should not be settled To free minority people from such 'supra-
by the exercise of power to enforce the individual' claims to identities and instead
dominant view. center the economic and material barriers
 In the face of disagreement or difference for social mobility.
what should be sought is peaceful
coexistence.
 The end goal is creating a regime of
toleration.
 Liberal perspective call for states to be less
interventionist and more ‘neutral’ on cultural
issues,
Cont.
 PILLARS OF MULTICULTURALISM
Acceptance/Recognitions …
 Acceptance is a notion of dealing with  Respect should not be confused with tolerance,
positive welcome, favor and endorsement since tolerance doesn’t necessary imply any
in which a person could like someone and positive feeling, and is not incompatible with
have acceptance for them do to their contempt, which is the opposite of respect.
approval of that person.  Respect for other cultures, languages, religion
 Acceptance of difference and acceptance of
Institutionalization
others...not mere tolerance of others belief  It is the process of embedding the individuals
in something with diverse culture to the main stream social
Respect institution holding their own identity.
 Denotes both a positive feeling of esteem  The process of giving shares of social
for a person or other entity (such as a administration for minority groups.
Nation or religion), and also specific
actions and conduct representative of that
Esteem.
 CONT.
Tolerances Valuing diversity
 Tolerance implies a respect for another  Valuing diversity is all about what institutions
and members of communities do to
person, not because, he is wrong or even
acknowledge the benefits of their differences.
because he is right, but because he is 
They work to build sustainable relationships
human. among peoples and institutions with diverse
 In social, cultural and religious contexts, memberships.
toleration and tolerance used to describe  A community that values diversity ensures
attitudes which are “tolerant” (or that institutions provide equal treatment and
moderately respectful) of practices or access to resources and decisions for all
community regardless of race, ethnicity,
group memberships that may be sexual orientation and physical disability.
disapproved of by those in the majority.  Multiculturalism emphasizes the fact that
 In practice, “tolerance” indicates support many groups have played significant roles in
for practices that prohibit ethnic and the cultural development and advancement of
religious discrimination. a country.
 NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARDS MULTICULTURALISM
Ethnocentrism  Ethnocentric thinking causes us:

 Ethnocentrism is the view that one’s own  To make wrong assumptions about other people.
 To make premature judgment about other
culture is better than all others
peoples and their culture.
 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own
 To think that they may not be very good at what
patterns of behavior are the best, the most we are best at.
nature, beautiful, right, or important.  By evaluating "them" by what we are best at, we
 Therefore, other people, to the extent that miss many other aspects of life that they often
they live differently, live by standards that handle more competently than we do.
are inhuman, irrational, unnatural, or wrong. Cultural Shock
 It is a feeling of being shocked when
 Ethnocentrism occurs when one culture or
individuals confronted by a culture different
nation places itself at the top of an imagined
from their own
hierarchy of cultures and nations and
 Particularly when migrants psychologically
subsequently assigns other cultures and
become frustrated as a result of cultural
nations equivalent or lower value on that
difference
scale.
 CONT.
xenocentrism  The differences that they assume, or know, to

 It is the exact opposite of ethnocentrism

exist within another culture make this other
culture somehow better than that of their own.
 It is a notion of preferring the ideas and
Cultural Lag
things of other cultures over ideas and things
 It is a situation where social and cultural
from his/her own culture.
change occurs in a slower pace from the
 At the heart of xenocentrism is an assumption
change in technology
that other cultures are superior to your own.
 It happens usually in change reactant cultural
 It is a condition where individuals devalue his
orientations
or her own society for other societies or
 it is also a situation where cultures become
cultures, because:
 They assume that what is true within their own
far from technological advancement and
social system is not necessarily so in another. material development.
CONT.
 MODERN STATES AND ISSUES OF MULTICULTURALISM
Nation-state and citizenship …
A. Nation State
 A politically sovereign country, having  Those differences will be potentials for
organized government/administration without strife unless administered properly and
external interference, especially one in which wisely
citizens share the same language, culture, and  It was partly in response to a new wave of
nationality. European imperialism in sub-Saharan
 Because of diverse historical factors, many Africa and the massive immigration of
nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas Southern and Eastern Europeans to the
are culturally diverse, and are 'multi-cultural' in United States and Latin America.
a descriptive sense.  The policies adopted by these states often
 Modern states specially states formed after the have parallels with multiculturalists policies
colonialism are characterized by diversity on in the Western world, but the historical
the basis of race, culture, language, religion background is different, and the goal may
and beliefs. be a mono-cultural or mono-ethnic nation-
building
 CONT.
B. Citizenship …
 Citizenship is a legal relationship between an  Because citizenship conscience arises from a
individual and his state accompanied by rights reflexive process
and responsibilities ones have over another.  If the state, its authorities and institutions, do
 Citizenship represents a relationship between not treat individuals as citizens, but as
the individual and the state, in which the two subjects, then:
are bound together by reciprocal rights and  These individuals will not be able to develop
obligations. a citizenship conscience
 The individual claims some sort of rights from  And, consequently, will not be capable of

the state, and the state claims some sort of identifying the legitimate procedures for
rights from an individual making demands.
 The state plays a fundamental role in the
creation of citizenship conscience,
 CONT.
Individualism and Group Right
A. Individualism  personal autonomy,
 Personal privacy,
 Individualism a socio-political version of
 self-realization,
liberalism
 individual initiative,
 Individualism is defined as a situation in
 Self independence,
which people are concerned with themselves
 individual decision making,
and close family members only,
 It believes that individuals are rational actors
 Generally it is an understanding of personal
and are also the best ‘maximisers’ of their identity as the sum of attributes of the
own welfare. individual, and less concern about the needs
 Individualism emphasize on promoting:
and interests of others.
 Individual’s and his/her immediate family’s
self-interest (underlining individual rights, not
responsibilities),
 CONT.
B. Group Right/Collectivism
 collectivism is defined as a situation in which are superior to individual decisions,
people feel they belong to larger in-groups or interdependence, an understanding of personal
collectives which care for them in exchange identity as knowing one’s place within the
for loyalty and vice versa (Hofstede & Bond, group, and concern about the needs and
1984). interests of others.
 Collectivism can also be defined as a cluster
of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors toward a
wide variety of people.
 Collectivistic societies, on the other hand,
emphasize loyalty to the group (while the
group in turn cares for the well-being of the
individual), emotional dependence on groups
and organizations, less personal privacy, the
belief that group decisions
 CONT.
Universal Citizenship and Differential
Citizenship
B. Differential Citizenship
A. Universal Citizenship  Is the granting of special group based legal or
 Universal Citizenship is the critiqued or
constitutional rights to national minorities and
modified opposite of multicultural citizenship. ethnic groups.
 Universal citizenship, a product of the French  According to Young (1989), It is a best way to
and American revolutions realize the inclusion and participation of
 Universal citizenship refers to the equality of everyone in full citizenship.
rights and status that have come to define  It mainly focus on ensuring the inclusion of
membership in liberal-democratic nation- these conventionally ignored groups of a
states: society like women, elderly and physically
 It is a motto of ‘citizenship for everyone and disabled individuals.
everyone the same qua citizen’ (Young, 1989:  It is a notion that a special treatment of
250). oppressed group minorities is necessary to
guarantee their full participation in important
decision making process as citizens.
 CHAPTER THREE
DEMOCRACY AND MULTICULTURALISM

Outlines of the Chapter

 Consociational democracy
 Ethnic federalism and multiculturalism
 Territorial federalism and multiculturalism
 Liberal democracy and multiculturalism
 DEFINING DEMOCRACY
 The word ‘democracy’ has its origins in the  Indirectly through representatives acting
Greek language. under procedures of majority rule.
 It combines two shorter words:  A moral value or imperative that is a basic
 ‘Demos’ meaning whole citizen living within a human need, a necessity and therefore it is
particular city-state and the political demand of all freedom loving
 ‘kratos’ meaning power or rule. human beings
 There is no absolute definition of democracy.  Democracy can also be understood as a way
 The term is elastic and expands and shrink of living and working together.
according to time, place and circumstances of  Generally, democracy is a system of
its use. government in which peoples have the
 What follows is a short list of definitions opportunity to select their own leaders
provided by field experts.  Because, a stable democracy is a one in
 A form of government in which political which the capabilities of the system are
decisions are made: sufficient to meet the demands placed upon
 Directly by the whole body of citizens, or it.
 CONT.
 The concept of democracy highly advocates the
idea of multiculturalism
 Because, democracy rejuvenate the concept of
equality of every person and fair treatment
without any discrimination.
 Thus, we cannot properly manage a
multicultural society without implementation
of democratic values.
 So, all major pillars of Multiculturalism have
their own roots from the basic democratic
values.
 CORE VALUES OF DEMOCRACY
 Democracy is correlated with the following interrelated core values.
 In the absence of any one of these values democracy would be meaningless.

Liberty

Liberty is derived from Latin word ‘lieber’ to mean free.

It is a state of freedom as opposed to political subjection be it individual or collective.

Equality

Equality denotes equal status in terms of civil, political and economic right with equal access to
public goods and services.

Accordingly equality has several forms.

Justice

Giving each one’s due, no deprivation, appropriateness, fairness or balance

Human Rights

Right is an individual’s claim on society that is legally recognised.

It is an opportunity for full fledged development of personality.
 Supporters and Opponents of Democracy
The supporters argues that: The opponents believes that:
 Democracy is an open and honest system  Democracy is nothing but mobocracy
based on the consent of majority of the  Brute majorities in legislatures undermine
governed. rights of minorities
 Democracy is ethically right as it ensures  Democratic governments need to be limited
freedom and presumes equality of all citizens. to ensure freedoms
 There is a correlation between democracy  Requires a system of checks and balances
and economic development.  Plato:
 Democracy ensures active citizen Democracy is full of variety and disorder.
participation and promotes a vibrant and It dispenses a sort of equality to equals
strong civil society and unequal alike.
 Incompetency and ignorance of politicians
is the special curse of democracies.
 CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY AND MULTICULTURALISM
Defining Consociational Democracy …
 Consociationalism is a form of democracy  It is a form of democracy that relies on
which seeks to regulate the sharing of power political cooperation among elites of each
in a state that comprises diverse societies segment.
(distinct ethnic, religious, political, national  Consociational democracy, finally, "can be
or linguistic groups), by allocating these defined in terms of four characteristics.
groups collective rights.  Grand coalition
 It is a method of self governance through
 Mutual veto
consensus democracy.  Proportionality
 It is also a form of democracy based on the
 High degree of Territorial autonomy for
existence of multiple balance of power
each segment
among segmental units.
 It is pronounced by Arend Lijphart in his
seminal writing Democracy in Plural
Societies (1977)
 CONT.
Premises of Consociational Democracy Favorable Conditions for Consociational
 There are premises for adopting Democracy
Consociational democracy  There are particular environments which are
A. Democracy is possible in multi-ethnic most appropriate for Consociational
states. democracy, to mention few;
B. Ethnicity is an inescapable aspect of the  Balance of power among groups

political process in these societies.  The presence of cross-cutting cleavages

C. Minority ethnic groups should be  Segmental isolation (residing at one
accommodated to avoid majority tyranny defined locality)
and ensure minority allegiance to the  An overarching loyalty to the state
state.  A small, wealthy country

 Prior tradition of elite accommodation

 CONT.
Characteristics of a Consociational
System
B. Mutual or minority veto
A. Grand coalition (executive power  In reality, traditional majoritarian
sharing) democracies a winner-takes-all system and
 The central theme in power-sharing is that ethnic minorities are usually excluded from
two or more ethnic groups jointly rule the political power.
common polity and make decisions by  As a result, conflicts involving minorities are
consensus. easily channeled into extra-parliamentary
and violent forms.
 Thus, all groups are ensured access to
 However, in Consociationalism minorities
political power on the basis of informal or have veto power over policy matters on vital
formal rules. interests, on government’s decision-making.
 General political willingness to cooperate,  It will thus be necessary to reach mutual
backed by elaborate system of advisory agreement among all parties in the executive.
councils and committees in which all
parties participate.
 CONT.
C. Proportional representation States that Employ Consociational Practices
 Enabling groups to be a part of the state’s Examples include:
decision-making and to have their voice 1. The Netherlands
heard in the highest instances of policy- 2. Belgium
making. 3. Lebanon’s National Pact of 1943
 All public resources allocated in strict  However, rather than having a uniform
proportion between communities (i.e.) structure, the application of
government funds, jobs, services, etc. Consociationalism could take different forms
 Where communities are unequal in size, then in different places
minorities is given party or to be
overrepresented.
D. Regional/Segmental Autonomy
 Culturally distinct groups allowed
considerable autonomy (e.g. Religious,
teething at School or in local language)
 FEDERALISM AND MULTICULTURALISM
 Federalism is a form of government  Federalism allows ethnically diverse groups a
characterized by the existence of two level of autonomy, protected by a constitution
constitutionally formed orders of that prescribes the powers of the central
government (central/regional) each with government in relation to those of the federated
independent powers units
 It is a better format of administration;
 Constitutionally created not creature of
other order (vs. unitary or confederal)
 To govern complex societies more
 Federalism is a democratic form of effectively
government so the first pre-condition of  To govern large countries more
federalism is a democratic environment. effectively
 If this exists, the question becomes what  To separate political power more
will better ‘fit’ or stabilize a particular effectively and to avoid the power
democracy: a unitary or federal form. concentration
 Federalism is basic to the stability of  To bring government responsibilities
many democracies closer to the citizens
CONT.
 ETHNIC FEDERALISM AND MULTICULTURALISM
Defining Ethnic Federalism  Ethnic federalism used to administer the
 Ethnic federalism is a form of federalism in interest of diverse groups for that:
which local constituencies demarcated based  It enable each group to express and
on ethnic and cultural lines. develop its own cultural identity within its
 Thus, it is a form of federation in which the homeland.
federated units defined in terms of ethnicity.  It reduce fears of unequal treatment or
 It can be used interchangeably with terms oppression by the state government
like multi-ethnic federalism and ethno  It provide for representation of all the
federalism or multi-national federalism. regional ethnic units in the central
 Basically it is used to accommodate ethnic government,
tensions within a state through provision of  It enable peaceful arbitration of the claims
autonomous self administration unit based on of different groups
ethnicity.  It reduce conflict among the groups within
the state
 It accommodate demands for regional
autonomy and manage inter-ethnic
tensions within a state.
 TERRITORIAL FEDERALISM AND MULTICULTURALISM
 A system of government which divides the  The Constitution assigns certain powers to the
powers of a government on a territorial basis National Government and certain powers to
between a national government and state the States (division of powers)
governments.  Federalism allows local action in matters of
 Is a form of federalism where the local concern and national action in matters of
demarcation between the constituent unit is wider concern.
founded on administrative factors.  All cultural and self administration claims will
 Thus, the administrative units defined in be answered using this territorial based
terms of territorial expressions autonomous self administration right.
 However, self autonomy is also granted for
these territorially based constituent units.
 LIBERAL DEMOCRACY AND MULTICULTURALISM
 A democratic system of government in A. A belief in the individual: since the individual
which; is believed to be both moral and rational
 Individual rights and freedoms are B. A belief in reason and progress: based on the
belief that growth and development is the
officially recognized and protected, and natural condition of mankind and politics the
 The exercise of political power is limited art of compromise
by the rule of law. C. A belief in a society that is consensual: based
 a democratic system of government in which on a desire for order and co-operation not
individual rights and freedoms are officially disorder and conflict
D. A belief in shared power: based on a suspicion
recognized and protected, and the exercise of
of concentrated power (whether by individuals,
political power is limited by the rule of law. groups or governments)
 It is generally agreed that liberal democracies
are based on four main principles
 CHAPTER FOUR
MULTICULTURAL POLICIES OF SELECTED COUNTRIES
Outlines of the Chapter
 SPECIFIC POLICY DIRECTIONS TO DEAL WITH
MULTICULTURALISM
 Exemption from laws that penalize cultural practices
 Affirmative action and assistance
 Special representation
 Self-determination/self-governance
 COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
 Canada’s policy of bi-lingualism
 Switzerland’s Cantonization policy of accommodation
 Belgium’s Linguistic policy and power sharing
 Australia and USA experience of policy of accommodating
diversity
 SPECIFIC POLICY DIRECTIONS TO DEAL WITH MULTICULTURALISM
 Exemptions from laws that penalize or burden cultural practice
 In multicultural societies for their mutual existence the government or the dominant
culture must exempt minorities from being penalized by practicing certain cultural
activities and give them an opportunity to promote their own culture.
 On the other hand the government or the dominant culture must not force them to
practice or promote certain culture.
 Generally the arena for cultural practices must be free from government intervention,
every society must be allowed to hold and practice whatever culture they want.
 CONT.

 Affirmative Action and Assistance

 It is an active effort to improve the employment or educational opportunities of members
of minority groups or women’s
 A policy or program aimed at countering discrimination against minorities and women,
especially in employment and education, i.e.
 It is about giving some supports or incentives for minorities that were discriminated in the
previous times to compensate and help them to develop their selves to be equal with
others
 CONT.

 Special Representation
 Since democracy is a rule of the majority in multicultural societies the government
gives special representation to protect them from domination by the voice of the
majority.
 It is one of the rights associated with national minorities; the government gives special
protection and representation to protect voices of minorities from domination by
interests of the majority.
 CONT.

 Self-Determination/ Self-Government
 In societies where various cultural groups exist, the government can employ the policy
of self-determination or self-administration in the form of federalism or local
administration.
 The government can give answer for multicultural societies claim by giving them a
chance to administer their own cultural areas in the form of regional governments,
local governments, special woredas and zones.
 When cultural groups are given self-administration, they will have a chance, to
administer their own respective issues within their respective administrative area.
 CONT.

 Policy of Accommodating Difference

 Governments of multicultural nations can adopt policies of cultural accommodation to
answer claims of minorities.
 Difference accommodation policy gives recognition for every cultural society to
promote and practice their culture with the creation of common stage for the
appreciation of mutual existence.
 When there is diversity accommodating the diversity will be potential source of
strength than being potential source of conflict,
 But it needs wise administration in the areas of interest clashes.