Lecture Presentation

Chapter 13

Properties of
Solutions

James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University Solutions
Hamden, CT
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 Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or
more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.
• The ability of substances to form solutions
depends on
 natural tendency toward mixing.
 intermolecular forces.

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 Natural Tendency toward Mixing
• Mixing of gases is a spontaneous process.
• Each gas acts as if it is alone to fill the container.
• Mixing causes more randomness in the position
of the molecules, increasing a thermodynamic
quantity called entropy.
• The formation of solutions is favored by the
increase in entropy that accompanies mixing.

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 Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction

Any intermolecular force of attraction

(Chapter 11) can be the attraction
between solute and solvent molecules. Solutions

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 Attractions Involved When
Forming a Solution
• Solute–solute interactions must be
overcome to disperse these particles
when making a solution.
• Solvent–solvent interactions must be
overcome to make room for the solute.
• Solvent–solute interactions occur as the
particles mix.
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Energetics of Solution Formation

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 Exothermic or Endothermic

• For a reaction to occur, ΔHmix must be

close to the sum of ΔHsolute and ΔHsolvent.
• Remember that the randomness from
entropy will affect the process, too. Solutions

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 Aqueous Solution vs.
Chemical Reaction

Just because a substance disappears when it

comes in contact with a solvent, it does not
mean the substance dissolved. It may have
reacted, like nickel with hydrochloric acid. Solutions

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 Opposing Processes
• The solution-making process and
crystallization are opposing processes.
•
• When the rate of the opposing processes is
equal, additional solute will not dissolve
unless some crystallizes from solution. This
is a saturated solution.
• If we have not yet reached the amount that
will result in crystallization, we have an
unsaturated solution. Solutions

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 Solubility
• Solubility is the maximum amount of
solute that can dissolve in a given amount
of solvent at a given temperature.
• Saturated solutions have that amount of
solute dissolved.
• Unsaturated solutions have any amount of
solute less than the maximum amount
dissolved in solution.
• Surprisingly, there is one more type of
solution. Solutions

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 Supersaturated Solutions

• In supersaturated solutions, the solvent holds more

solute than is normally possible at that temperature.
• These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal”
or scratching the side of the flask.
• These are uncommon solutions.
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 Factors That Affect Solubility

• Solute–solvent Interactions
• Pressure (for gaseous solutes)
• Temperature

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 Solute–Solvent Interactions
• Simply put: “Like dissolves like.”
• That does not explain everything!
• The stronger the solute–solvent interaction, the
greater the solubility of a solute in that solvent.
• The gases in the table only exhibit dispersion force.
The larger the gas, the more soluble it will be in
water.

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 Organic Molecules
in Water
• Polar organic molecules
dissolve in water better than
nonpolar organic molecules.
• Hydrogen bonding increases
solubility, since C–C and C–H
bonds are not very polar.

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 Liquid/Liquid Solubility
• Liquids that mix in all
proportions are
miscible.
• Liquids that do not
mix in one another
are immiscible.
• Because hexane is
nonpolar and water is
polar, they are
immiscible. Solutions

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Solubility and Biological Importance
• Fat-soluble vitamins (like vitamin A) are nonpolar;
they are readily stored in fatty tissue in the body.
• Water-soluble vitamins (like vitamin C) need to be
included in the daily diet.

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 Pressure Effects
• The solubility of
solids and liquids
are not appreciably
affected by
pressure.
• Gas solubility is
affected by
pressure.

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 Henry’s Law
• The solubility of a gas is
proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas
above the solution.
•

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 Temperature
Effects
• For most solids, as temperature
increases, solubility increases.
However, clearly this is not
always true—some increase
greatly, some remain relatively
constant, and others decrease.
• For all gases, as temperature
increases, solubility decreases.
Cold rivers have higher oxygen
content than warm rivers.
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 Solution Concentration

• We have discussed solubility and

solutions qualitatively: saturated (which
is quantitative), unsaturated, and
supersaturated.
• Now we will give specific amounts to
solutions.

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 Units of Concentration
1) Mass percentage
2) Parts per million (ppm)
3) Parts per billion (ppb)
4) Mole fraction
5) Molarity
6) Molality

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 1) Mass Percentage

• Percent means “out of 100.”

• Take the ratio of the mass of the solute
to the total solution mass.
• Multiply by 100 to make it a percent.

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 2) Parts per Million (ppm)
3) Parts per Billion (ppb)
• still relating mass of a solute to the total
mass of the solution
• Since percent is out of 100, we multiplied
by 100.
• ppm is per million, so we multiply by 106.

• ppb is per billion, so we multiply by 109.

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 (4) Mole Fraction (χ)

• Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of a

substance to the total number of moles
in a solution.
• It does not matter if it is for a solute or
for a solvent.

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 (5) Molarity (M)
(6) Molality (m)
• Be careful of your penmanship!
• Molarity was discussed in Chapter 4 as
moles of solute per liter of solution.

• Molality is moles of solute per kilogram

of solvent.

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 Molarity vs. Molality

• When water is the solvent, dilute

solutions have similar molarity and
molality.
• Molality does not vary with temperature
(mass does not change).
• Molarity varies with temperature
(volume changes).
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 Converting Units

• Follow dimensional analysis techniques

from Chapter 1.
• To convert between molality and
molarity, the density of the solution must
be used.

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 Colligative Properties
• Colligative properties depend only on
the quantity, not on the identity of the
solute particles.
• Among colligative properties are:
– Vapor-pressure lowering
– Boiling-point elevation
– Freezing-point depression
– Osmotic pressure

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 Vapor Pressure
Because of solute–solvent intermolecular
attraction, higher concentrations of nonvolatile
solutes make it harder for solvent to escape to the
vapor phase. Therefore, the vapor pressure of a
solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

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 Raoult’s Law
• The vapor pressure of a volatile solvent
over the solution is the product of the
mole fraction of the solvent times the
vapor pressure of the pure solvent.

• In ideal solutions, it is assumed that

each substance will follow Raoult’s Law.

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 Boiling-Point Elevation
Since vapor pressures are lowered for solutions, it
requires a higher temperature to reach atmospheric
pressure. Hence, boiling point is raised.

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 Freezing-Point Depression
The construction of the phase diagram for a
solution demonstrates that the freezing point is
lowered while the boiling point is raised.

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 Boiling-Point Elevation and
Freezing-Point Depression
• The change in temperature is directly proportional
to molality (using the van’t Hoff factor).

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 The van’t Hoff Factor (i)
• What is the van’t Hoff factor?
• It takes into account dissociation in solution!
• Theoretically, we get 2 particles when NaCl
dissociates. So, i = 2.
• In fact, the amount that particles remain together
is dependent on the concentration of the solution.

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 Osmosis
• Some substances form semipermeable
membranes, allowing some smaller particles to pass
through, but blocking larger particles.
• The net movement of solvent molecules from solution
of low to high concentration across a semipermeable
membrane is osmosis. The applied pressure to stop
it is osmotic pressure.

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 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic pressure is a colligative
property.

• If two solutions separated by a

semipermeable membrane have the
same osmotic pressure, no osmosis
will occur.

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 Types of Solutions & Osmosis
1) Isotonic solutions: Same osmotic pressure;
solvent passes the membrane at the same
rate both ways.
2) Hypotonic solution: Lower osmotic
pressure; solvent will leave this solution at a
higher rate than it enters with.
3) Hypertonic solution: Higher osmotic
pressure; solvent will enter this solution at a
higher rate than it leaves with.
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 Osmosis and Blood Cells
• Red blood cells have semipermeable membranes.
• If stored in a hypertonic solution, they will shrivel
as water leaves the cell; this is called crenation.
• If stored in a hypertonic solution, they will grow
until they burst; this is called hemolysis.

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 Colloids
Suspensions of particles larger than
individual ions or molecules, but too small to
be settled out by gravity, are called colloids.

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 Tyndall Effect
• Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of light.
(Solutions do not.)
• This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.

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 Colloids and Biomolecules

Some molecules have a

polar, hydrophilic
(water-loving) end and a
nonpolar, hydrophobic
(water-fearing) end.

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 Stabilizing Colloids by
Adsorption
• Ions can adhere to the surface of an
otherwise hydrophobic colloid.
• This allows it to interact with aqueous
solution.

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Colloids in Biological Systems

• Colloids can aid in

the emulsification of
fats and oils in
aqueous solutions.
• An emulsifier
causes something
that normally does
not dissolve in a
solvent to do so.
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 Brownian Motion

Motion of colloids due to numerous

collisions with the much smaller solvent.

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