CHAPTER 4

Engineering Estimations and

Approximations
Chapter Outline

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Numbers & Significant Digits

4.3 Accuracy and Precision

4.4 Types of Errors and Error Analysis

4.5 Engineering Estimations

4.1 Introduction
 Engineers are problem solvers.

 Engineers design to satisfy a need and improve the living standard

• Example; water is hot
▫ Hot for bath?
▫ Hot for drinking?
▫ Too hot, not very hot, etc?

 Engineers make measurements of a vast array of physical quantities

pertaining to product or system and environment. Skill in making
and interpreting measurements is an essential element.
 Objectives for this chapter:
 Learn the differences in:
Accuracy/precision,
Random/systematic error,
Uncertainty/error

 Compute true, fractional, and percent error

 Use proper number of significant figures to report work
4.2 Numbers & Significant Digits
 Real and Integer Values
 Real (exact or approximate) numbers represent continuous
quantities, e.g., length of rod, mass of rock, velocity of a vehicle,
etc. All type of numbers.

L

Integer (exact) numbers represent discrete quantities, e.g.,
number of marbles, number of people, number of computers,
etc. For example, 65, 7, and −756 are integers; 1.6 and 1½ are
not integers.
 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
WHAT IS A “SIGNIFICANT DIGITS”?
The number of significant digits in a result is simply the
number of figures that are known with some degree of
reliability.

EXAMPLE :
The number 13.2 is said to have 3 significant digits.
The number 13.20 is said to have 4 significant digits.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

Rules for deciding the number of significant digits in a measured

quantity:

(1)All nonzero digits are significant:

1.234 g has 4 significant digits,
1.2 g has 2 significant digits.

(2) Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant:

1002 kg has 4 significant digits,
3.07 mL has 3 significant digits.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Rules for deciding the number of significant digits in a measured
quantity:
(3) Leading zeros to the left of the first nonzero digits
are not significant;
such zeroes merely indicate the position of the decimal point:
0.001 oC has only 1 significant digit,
0.012 g has 2 significant digits.

(4) Trailing zeroes that are also to the right of a decimal

point in a number are significant:
0.0230 mL has 3 significant digits,
0.20 g has 2 significant digits.
 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

 The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of
standard exponential ,or "scientific," notation.
 For example, depending on whether the number of significant digits is
3, 4, or 5, we would write 50,600 calories as:

5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant digits)

5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant digits), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant digits).
 Significant Digits
• Do the numbers 5000 and 5000. imply the same significance?
5000. contains four significant digits.

• 5000 is an ambiguous number. It contains either one, two,

three, or four significant digits.

• How do you write 5000 to two significant digits?

• Use scientific notation: 5.0 X 103
 Significant Digits

 How many significant digits should you use?


The number of significant digits used implies a
certain maximum error range.
Significant Digits
Example:
The number 101 has three significant digits and
means a number between 100.5 and 101.5. The
error range is 1 ( 0.5) or about 1% of 101.

• Three significant digits implies a maximum error range of

1%.
• Four significant digits implies a maximum error range of
0.1%.
• Only in exceptional cases will precision better that 0.1%
(four significant figures) be necessary in engineering
problems.
 Rules for Significant Digits
Rule No 1 : In multiplication and division -
use as many significant digits as the number that has the fewest
(excluding exact conversion factors)

(4.00 kg) (4 m/s2) = 16 kg m/s2

(2.43)*(17.675)= ? 42.95025
Ans. 43.0 @ 4.30x101
(2.479 h) (60 min/h) =? 148.74 min
Ans. 148.7 @ 1.487x10²
Exact conversion factor
Rules for Significant Digits

Rule No 1 : In multiplication and division

(4.00x102) (2.2046 lbm/kg) =? 881.84lb Ans. 882 lb

Conversion factor is not exact; cannot increase precision
Use one or more significant figure for your conversion factor
Rules for Significant Digits
Rule No 2: In addition and subtraction -

line up the decimals and retain the least significant place.

897.0
- 0.0922
896.9078
896.9 (Answer)
Rules for Significant Digits
Rule No 3 : Combined operations

If products or quotients are to be added or subtracted,

perform the multiplication and division first,

establish the correct number of significant figures in the

sub answer,
perform the addition and subtraction,
then round to the proper number of significant figures.
Rules for Significant Digits
Rule No 3 : Combined operations

When using calculator, it is normal practice to perform entire

calculation and then report a reasonable number of
significant figures

Note; 39.7/(772.3-772.26)=992.5
– But if 772.3-772.26=0, then it becomes impossible
– Use common sense
Rules for Significant Digits
• Rounding
– 827.48 rounds to 827.5 or 827
– 23.650 rounds to 23.7 (3 significant digits)
– 0.0143 rounds to 0.014 (2 significant digits)
Team Work 1
• How many significant digits are contained in each of the
following quantities

– A) 5 760 000
– B) 222.230
– C) 4.626 7x102
– D) 0.000 6
– B) 1.320x103
Team Work 2
• Perform the following computational and report with the
answer rounded to the proper number of significant digits.
(No numbers are exact conversions)

– A) 3.735-1.43
– B) 6.231 827x(4.23x107)
– C) 4500.3+372
– D) 4 300 240/784
Team Work 3

• Perform the suggested calculations using exact conversions

or with enough significant digits so that it does not affect
the accuracy of the answer

– 4376 ft to miles (1 mi =5 280 ft)

– 653.545 kg to N (g=9.806 65 m/s2)
– 7.8*1010 atoms to mole (NA=6.022 136 736*1023
atoms/mol)
4.3 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy

Accuracy - nearness to the correct value.

Example:
A chemistry instructor makes a 5.00% sugar solution.
Using a sugar test, a team of students analyzes the solution
and reports the following results:
Student Result
A 5.03%
B 4.96%
C 2.98%
 Precision
 Precision - repeatability of the measurement
indicates scatter in the data
Example:
A chemistry instructor makes a 5.00% sugar solution. Using a
sugar assay, a team of students analyzes the solution in triplicate
and reports the following results:
Students Results
A 5.03%, 4.97%, 5.07%
B 4.49%, 5.52%, 5.01%
C 2.98%, 7.98%, 9.23%
Precision vs. Accuracy
Measurements
• Measurements can be reported as a value plus or minus a
number
• Example;
 32.3±0.2
32.3, 32.1 and 32.5 are acceptable
 220 oF with ±1%
Accuracy ±2.2 oF
4.4 Types of Errors
and
Error Analysis
 Errors

Error is the difference between a measured or calculated
(reported) value and the true value.

 Engineers recognize that errors are present in their professional

lives and must be able to:

1. Identify types of errors

2. Numerically express the magnitude of errors
3. Recognize the confidence that may be
placed in a printed number
Simple Error Analysis

Suppose a rod of unknown length is measured with a
standard meter stick.

 Spend 5 minutes as a team completing this exercise:


What can be said about the length of the rod is reported
as:
7 to 8 cm
7.5 to 7.6 cm
7.57 to 7.59 cm?
 Systematic Errors
 Systematic Errors - errors that can be recognized to some
regular outside occurrence.


Engineers must be aware of the presence of systematic
errors and eliminate those possible and try to calculate and
correct for those remaining.
 The error associated with systematic errors can
be corrected if the source and magnitude are
known.

 Repeating measurements will not eliminate or

reduce systematic errors.
Example of Systematic Errors
• Measuring 1200 m with 25 m steel tape

• If the tape is not exactly 25.000m, there will be

systematic errors 48 times due to :

– Temperature effect;
– Tension difference when measuring tapes
– Smoothness of the surface can be different
Example of Systematic Errors

• Tension difference when measuring tapes

• Smoothness of the surface can be different
Random Errors

Accidental (Random) Errors - errors that occur in a
random nature.


The presence of accidental errors is evident by the scatter
in measured data.


It is impossible to predict the magnitude and sign of the
accidental error present in any one measurement.


Repeating measurements and averaging the results will
reduce the random error in the average.
Example of Random Errors
• Reading graduation level

• The measuring tape may sag during measurement

– To correct this error, calculate deflection using
A, I, E, tension T; all involves errors
• Refinement of the apparatus and care in its use can
reduce the magnitude of error

• Awareness of the problem, knowledge of the

degree of precision of the equipment, skill with
measurement procedures, and proficiency in the
use of statistics allow us to estimate the magnitude
of error
 What type of error is it?
1. The produce scale at the grocery store has water on it. (The
water runs off the produce)
2. The timekeeper sneezes at the moment the runners cross
the finish line.
3. Gasoline sloshed from your tank prior to the pump shutting
off [miles per gallons (mpg) calculation].
4. Measuring with a 100 ft tape that is actually 99.01 ft.
5. Press the wrong key(s) on a calculator during a long
calculation.
Definitions
 There are three ways to numerically describe error:

1. True error = Reported value - True value

2. Fractional error = True error / True value

3. Percent error = Fractional error * 100%

Example:
Calculate the true error, fractional error and percent error for:

Reported Value Correct Value

Distance Distance
(m) (m)

109 100

1050 1000

45 50

17 20
4.5 Approximations
Approximation
• Engineers strive for high-level precision

• Also, it is important to be aware of an acceptable

precision and the time and cost of attaining it

• Engineers are expected to make an approximation to

the solution before time and funds invested to increase
accuracy

• Engineers rely on their basic understanding of the

problem under discussion coupled with their previous
experience
Approximation
The accuracy of these estimates depends on:

1. Consequences/cost of error,
2. Available reference materials,
3. Time allotted for estimate,
4. Experience with similar problems.
Example of Approximation

• A city with 12000 population tries to solve solid

waste problem for next ten years. A city council
asks a civil engineer how many acres of land will
be needed for the disposal of solid waste.
Solution:
• A civil engineer quickly surveyed that the national
average of the solid waste is 2.75 kg/capita/day
• (2.75 kg/capita/day)*(365 days/year)
• Approximately 1000 kg/year/person
• Maybe compacted to 400 to 600 kg/m3
Solution:

• Approximately the per capita landfill volume is 2 m3 each

year
• About the refuse of 2000 people per year needs one acre if
filled 1 m deep (1 acre =4 047 m2)
• The city bedrock is 6 m deep, so 4 m deep fill is possible
• 1.5 acres per year, 15 acres for 10 years
• Growth factor of the city, recommend 20 acres.
Example 2

• Estimate the number of paper clips that will fit in a box

16cm by 10cm by 12cm
(1 paper clip = 1.5cm by 1cm by 0.2cm)

1 minutes solution