Mechanical Properties of

Materials (Part 1)
BMM1133
Materials Science
Sect 03

Kamal Yusoh
FTKKP
Chemical Engineering Program

Week 04
 Learning Objectives

• Define Engineering Stress & Engineering Strain

• Define Modulus of Elasticity, Hooke’s law and
Tensile Strength
• Differentiate between Elastic & Plastic
deformation
• Define the Toughness and Ductility of materials
 Introduction

• Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior

when subjected to mechanical stresses. Properties
include elastic modulus, hardness, ductility and various
measures of strength.
• Engineers are primarily concerned with the development
and design of machines, structures etc.
• These products are often subjected to forces/
deformations, resulting in stresses/strains, the properties
of materials under the action of forces and deformations
becomes an important engineering consideration.
 Introduction

• The response of a material to applied forces depends on

the type and nature of the bond and the structural
arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions.
 Stress vs Strain

• If a load applied to the material is static or

changing slowly with time and it is applied
uniformly on the surface of interest, then we can
test the behavior of the material under applied
load by a test called “stress-strain” test

Tensile Compression Shear strain Torsional Deformation

Types of Forces
 Stress vs Strain

• The load and deformation relationship depends on the

geometrical factors of the specimen; therefore,
normalization of them to geometric dimensions are
helpful in comparing the materials

Engineering Stress Engineering Strain

where F= perpendicular force where li =instantaneous length

applied to the surface l0=initial length
uniformly. strain is unitless and it is
A0= the original cross sectional sometimes expressed in
area before loading percentage by multiplying
Unit = N/m2 or Psi the value with 100.
 Simple Tension
• Tensile stress, s:
Ft

Area, Ao

Ft
F F
A o = cross sectional Ft lb N
s= = 2f or
area (when unloaded) A o in m2
F original area
s= s s
Ao before loading
Simple Compression

F Note: compressive
s= structure member
Ao (s < 0 here).
 Shear Stress

• Shear stress, t:
Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Fs

t = Fs F Ft
Ao
 Torsion

• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
t =
M Ao
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
• Shear strain:
dL /2
q
x g = Dx/y = tan q

y 90º - q
90º Strain is always
dimensionless.
 Stress vs Strain Test

• Typical tensile
specimen

extensometer specimen

gauge
length

Adapted from
Fig. 7.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
Tensile Test
Stress vs Strain
Curve
Elongation at Break
Elastic vs Plastic
Regions
 Elastic Deformation

1. Initial 2. Load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial shape
d
F F Linear-
Return to the original shape elastic
when the applied load is
Non-Linear-
removed. elastic
Elastic means reversible! d
 Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Load 3.Unload
bonds
stretch p lanes
& planes still
shear sheared

delastic + plastic dplastic

F
Could not return to the F
original shape when the linear linear
applied load is removed. elastic elastic
d
dplastic delastic
Plastic means permanent!
 Mechanical Property
Data for Tensile Test

1- Modulus of
elasticity

2-Yield strength , YS
(0.2% offset)

3-Tensile strength, TS

4-Ductility

5-Toughness
 Modulus of Elasticity
• is a measure of the stiffness of the material, but it only
applies in the linear region of the curve. If a specimen is
loaded within this linear region, the material will return to
its exact same condition if the load is removed
• Hooke’s Law, s = E e
s
E
e
Linear-
elastic
 Poisson’s Ratio
• Poisson's ratio, n: eL

eL
n=-
e
e
metals: n ~ 0.33
-n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units:  > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]  < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)
 Other Elastic
Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
 Linear Elastic
Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = -n Fw o a=
L 4
EA o EA o r o G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2

• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection.

• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
 Problem 1

• A piece of copper • Solution ?? (0.77mm)

originally 305 mm (12 in)
long is pulled in tension
with a stress of 276 MPa
(40000 Psi). If the
deformation is entirely
elastic, determine the
resultant elongation

• From Table 7.1 (E = 110

GPa)
 Yield Strength (YS)
• YS is defined as the stress applied to the
material at which plastic deformation starts to
occur while the material is loaded. when e = 0.002
p

Plastic

Elastic
 Tensile Strength (TS)
• is the highest engineering stress developed in
material before rupture
TS Typical response of a metal

y F = fracture or
engineering

ultimate
stress

strength

Neck – acts
as stress
strain concentrator
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
 Ductility

• The degree of plastic deformation that has been

sustained at fracture
• Elastic recovery occurs when stress is removed
from a specimen that has already undergone
plastic deformation
Ao
Lf - Lo Lo Af Lf
%EL = x 100
Lo
Elastic Recovery

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao
 Toughness

• Toughness is defined as the amount of energy

that a material can absorb before fracturing.

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
TS vs Ductility vs
Toughness
 Tensile Response
s (MPa) fibrillar
structure

near
onset of
failure
necking plastic failure
x

unload/reload

crystalline
regions
slide
semi-
crystalline amorphous
crystalline
case regions
regions align
elongate
 Factors need to
consider
• Temperature – Increase T will decrease TS, YM
but increase EB
• Strain rate (for example for plastic 5mm/min) –
Increasing crosshead speed will give higher TS
but lower EB
• There are some standards –ASTM, ISO to select
proper sample dimension and test condition for
particular type of materials
• For example strain rate should be such that the
sample breaks within 2-5 minutes (for composite
5mm/min)
 Influence of T and
SR on Thermoplastic
s (MPa)
• Decreasing T... 80 Plots for
4°C
-- increases E semicrystalline
-- increases TS 60 PMMA (Plexiglas)
20°C
-- decreases %EL
40
40°C
• Increasing
strain rate...
20
-- same effects to 1.3
as decreasing T. 60°C
0
0 0.1 0.2
e 0.3
 Strain Rate

• Increasing
strain rate...
-- increases TS
-- increases EM
-- decreases EB
 Resilience
• The capacity of a materials to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have
this energy recovered.
• Modulus of Resilience, Ur = ( σ2y )/2E
y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear stress-
strain curve this simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
 Elastic Strain
Recovery

sy i D

sy o
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Elastic strain
recovery
 True Stress vs True
Strain
• During the tensile test, after necking of the
sample occurs, the engineering stress (ES)
decreases as the strain increases, leading to a
maximum ES in the stress-strain curve. Thus,
once necking begins during the tensile test, the
True Stress is higher than the ES.
 True Stress vs True
Strain
• True stress T  F Ai T  1   
• True strain T  lni o  T  ln1   
 Design or Safety
Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working  1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5. d
y
working  1045 plain
N carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d /42
 F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
 Summary

• Stress and strain: These are size-independent

measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
 Exercise 1

• A 0.5-cm-diameter aluminum
bar is subjected to a force of
500N. Calculate the engineering
stress in Mpa on the bar.

• Solution;
• =
 Exercise 2

• Compare the engineering stress and strain

with the true stress and strain for tensile
test of low-carbon steel that has the
following test values.
Load applied to specimen = 69000N
Initial specimen diameter = 1.27 cm
Dia. of spec. under 69000N load = 1.20cm
Exercise 3

Determine:
a) The modulus of elasticity
b) The yield strength
c) The maximum load that
can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen
having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm
d) The change in length of a
specimen originally 250
mm long than is
subjected to a tensile
stress of 345 MPa
Exercise 4
A specimen of ductile cast
iron having a rectangular
cross-section of 4.8 mm x
15.9 mm is deformed in
tension.
Determine:

a) Plot a stress-strain
diagram
b) The modulus of elasticity
c) The yield strength
d) The tensile strength of the
alloy
e) The ductility