Chapter 2

Network Models

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 2.1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example,

let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

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 Layered Tasks
 Sender, Receiver and Carrier

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 Layered Tasks
 Hierarchy
 Higher Layer

 Middle Layer
 Lower Layer

 Services

 The Each layer uses the services of the layer immediately

below it.

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 2.2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
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 Layered Architecture
 The OSI model is composed of seven layers ;
 Physical (layer1), Data link (layer2), Network (layer3)

 Transport (layer4), Session (layer5), Presentation (layer6)

 Application (layer7)

 Layer

 Designer identified which networking functions had related

uses and collected those functions into discrete groups that
became the layers.
The OSI model allows complete interoperability between
otherwise incompatible systems.
The Each layer uses the services of the layer immediately
below it.
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 Layered Architecture (cont’d)

Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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 Peer-to-peer Processes
 Layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on
another machine - called Peer-to-Peer Processes.

 Interfaces between Layers

 Each interface defines what information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it.
 Well defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity
to a network

 Organizations of the layers

 Network support layers : Layers 1, 2, 3
 User support layer : Layer 5, 6, 7
 It allows interoperability among unrelated software systems
 Transport layer (Layer 4) : links the two subgroups
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 Peer-to-peer Processes (cont’d)
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Peer-to-peer Processes (cont’d)
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
 The data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet
from level N. – The concept is called encapsulation.

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 2.3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer

in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
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 Physical Layer
 Physical layer coordinates the functions required to
transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.

 The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Physical Layer
 Physical layer is concerned with the following:

(deal with the mechanical and electrical specification of

the primary connections: cable, connector)
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
 Representation of bits
 Data rate : transmission rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode

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 Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Data Link Layer
 Major duties
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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 Data Link Layer
 Hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery

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 Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to the destination
host.

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 Network Layer
 Logical addressing

 Routing

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 Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.

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 Transport Layer
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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 Transport Layer
 Service port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control

 Flow control

 Error control

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 Session Layer
 The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.

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 Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption

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 Application Layer
 The application layer is responsible for providing
services to the user.

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 Application Layer
 The major duties of the application
 Network virtual terminal
 File transfer, access, and management
 Mail services
 Directory services

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 Summary of Layers
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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 2.4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP
is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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 Physical and Data Link Layers
 At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not
define any specific protocol.

 It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

 A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area

network or a wide-area network.

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 Network Layer
 TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol.

 IP uses four supporting protocols : ARP, RARP, ICMP,

and IGMP.
 IP (Internetworking Protocol)
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)

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 Transport Layer
 The transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two
protocols : TCP and UDP.
 IP is a host-to-host protocol
 TCP and UDP are transport level protocols
responsible for delivery of a message from a
process to another process.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)

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 Application Layer
 The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the
combined session, presentation, and application layers
in the OSI model.

 Many protocols are defined at this layer.

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 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the

TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

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 Addresses

Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

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 Addresses (cont’d)
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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 Physical Addresses
 The physical address, also known as the link address,
is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.

 It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.

The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN
or WAN).
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the
network.

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 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame

to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are
connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows,
the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

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 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

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 Physical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.2
As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks use
a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a
colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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 Logical Addresses
 Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks.
 Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different
address formats.
 A universal addressing system is needed in which host can be
identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical
network.

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 Logical Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only
one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each
router, however, is connected to three networks (only two
are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of
addresses, one for each connection.
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 Logical Addresses (cont’d)
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

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 Port Addresses
 The IP and the physical address are necessary for a
quantity of data to travel from a source to the
destination host.

 The end object of Internet communication is a process

communicating with another process.

 For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we

need a method to label assigned to a process is called
a port address.

 A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

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 Port Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs
to communicate with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although physical addresses change from hop to
hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the
source to destination.
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 Port Addresses (cont’d)
Figure 2.21 Port addresses

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

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 Port Addresses (cont’d)

Example 2.5
As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit
address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.

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 Specific Addresses
 Some applications have user-friendly addresses that
are designed for that specific address.
 E-mail address
 URL (Universal Resource Locator)

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 Summary (1)
 The International Standards Organization (ISO) created a model called the
Open Systems Interconnection, which allows diverse systems to
communicate.

 The seven-layer OSI model provides guidelines for the development of

universally compatible networking protocols.

 The physical, data link, and network layers are the network support layers.

 The session, presentation, and application layers are the user support
layers.

 The transport layer links the network support layers and the user support
layers.

 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit

stream over a physical medium.

 The data link layer is responsible for delivering data units from one station
to the next without errors.
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 Summary (2)
 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet across multiple network links.

 The transport layer is responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the

entire message.

 The session layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interactions

between communicating devices.

 The presentation layer ensures interoperability between communicating

devices through transformation of data into a mutually agreed upon format.

 The application layer enables the users to access the network.

 TCP/IP is a five-layer hierarchical protocol suite developed before the OSI

model.

 The TCP/IP application layer is equivalent to the combined session,

presentation, and application layers of the OSI model.

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 Summary (3)
 Four levels of addresses are used in an internet following the
TCP/IP protocols: physical (link) addresses, logical (IP) addresses,
port addresses, and specific addresses.

 The physical address, also known as the link address, is the

address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.

 The IP address uniquely defines a host on the Internet.

 The port address identifies a process on a host.

 A specific address is a user-friendly address.

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 Q&A

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