CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE DRIVER,
THE PEDESTRIAN,
THE VEHICLE,
AND THE ROAD
 COMPONENTS OF
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

01 04
Driver 02 03 Road
Pedestria
Vehicle
n
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE
DRIVER
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DRIVER Traffic and transportation engineers are considering
various factors that can affect the efficiency of
transportation. One of these factors is the driver's
characteristics. Varying in their skills and perceptual
abilities where demonstrated by a wide range of abilities
to hear, see, evaluate, and react to information. Studies
have shown that these abilities may also vary in an
individual under different conditions, such as the
influence of alcohol, fatigue, and the time of day.
Therefore, it is important that criteria used for design
purposes be compatible with the capabilities and
limitations of most drivers on the highway.
 THE HUMAN RESPONSE

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their

evaluation of and reaction to information they obtain from
certain stimuli that they see or hear. However, evaluation
and reaction must be carried out within a very short time, as
the information being received along the highways is
continually changing. It is important that highway and
traffic engineers have some fundamental knowledge of
visual perception as well as of hearing perception.
 VISUAL RECEPTION
Principal Characteristics of the eye:

Visual Acuity Glare Vision and Recovery

Peripheral Vision Depth Perception

Color Vision

04
VISUAL ACUITY
Visual acuity is the most common clinical
measurement of how your eyes function. It's
usually one of the first tests taken during a
comprehensive eye exam to determine how sharp
your vision is. ‌
Visual acuity test is a critical part of identifying signs of vision
problems.
For example, it can detect refractive errors, more commonly
known as farsightedness and near-sightedness.
Hyperopia (farsightedness) occurs when you have sharp far-
range vision while your close-range vision is less clear.
Myopia (near-sightedness) is the opposite, your close-range
vision may be clear, while your far-range vision is out of focus. 
Two Types of Visual Acuity

Static Visual Acuity

Dynamic Visual Acuity

Static Visual Acuity
The driver's ability to identify an object when both
the object and the driver are stationary depends on his
or her static acuity.
Factors that affect static visual acuity

Background brightness

Contrast

Time
Dynamic Visual
Acuity
The driver's ability to clearly detect
relatively moving objects, not necessarily
in his or her direct line of vision, depends
on the driver's dynamic visual acuity.
 Peripheral Vision

The ability of people to see

objects beyond the cone of
clearest vision. Although objects
can be seen within this zone,
details and color are not clear.
 Color Vision
The ability to differentiate one color
from another, but deficiency in this
ability, usually referred to as color
blindness, is not of great
significance in highway driving
because other ways of recognizing
traffic information devices (e.g.,
shape) can compensate for it.
 Glare Vision and
Recovery
Glare vision
- Glare is light that interferes with your vision,
making it difficult to see or sometimes making
your eyes water.
Glare
Recovery
- is the time required by a person to recover from
the effects of glare after passing the light source.
Two types of Glare Vision

Direct Glare

Specular Glare
 Depth Perception

Affects the ability of a person to

estimate speed and distance. It is
particularly important on two-lane
highways during passing
maneuvers, when head-on crashes
may result from a lack of proper
judgment of speed and distance.
 Hearing Perception

The ear receives sound stimuli, which is

important to drivers only when warning
sounds, usually given out by emergency
vehicles, are to be detected. Loss of some
hearing ability is not a serious problem, since
it normally can be corrected by a hearing aid.
PERCEPTION - REACTION
PROCESS
The process through which a driver, cyclist, or
pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus.
 FOUR PHASES

01 03
PERCEPTIO EMOTION
N
02 04
IDENTIFICAT REACTION or
ION VOLITION
 PERCEPTION IDENTIFICATION

The driver sees a control The driver identifies the object or

device, warning sign, or control device and thus
object on the road. understands the stimulus.

04
 REACTION OR
EMOTION
VOLITION

The driver decides what The driver actually executes

action to take in response to the the action decided on during
stimulus; for example, to the emotion sub-process.
step on the brake pedal, to pass,
to swerve, or to change lanes.

04
 Time elapses during each of these subprocesses.
The time that elapses from the start of perception to
the end of reaction is the total time required for
perception, identification, emotion, and volition,
sometimes referred to as PIEV time or (more
commonly) as perception-reaction time.
PERCEPTION –
REACTION TIME
⚫ An important factor in the determination of braking
distances, which in turn dictates the minimum sight
distance required on a highway and the length of the
yellow phase at a signalized intersection.
⚫ Varies among individuals and may, in fact, vary for
the same person as the occasion changes.

⚫These changes in perception-reaction time depend on

how complicated the situation is, the existing
environmental conditions, age, whether the person is
tired or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol, and
whether the stimulus is expected or unexpected.
TRIGGS AND HARRIS
• They noted that the 85th-percentile time to brake,
obtained from several situations, varied from
1.26 to over 3 seconds.
 The reaction time selected for design purposes should,
however, be large enough to include reaction times for most drivers
using the highways. Recommendations made by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) stipulate 2.5 seconds for stopping-sight distances. This
encompasses the decision times for about 90 percent of drivers
under most highway conditions. Note, however, that a reaction time
of 2.5 second may not be adequate for unexpected conditions or for
some very complex conditions, such as those at multiphase at-grade
intersections and ramp terminals. For example, when signals are
unexpected, reaction times can increase by 35 percent.
 OLDER
DRIVER’S
CHARACTERIST
ICS
As older drivers seem to be depending more on the
automobile for meeting their transportation needs, it is
very important that traffic and highway engineers
consider these diminished characteristics of older drivers
in making decisions on highway design and operational
characteristics that are influenced by human
characteristics.
 Specific declining abilities of older drivers include reduced visual acuity,
ability to see at night, and flexibility and motion range. This group also suffers
from narrower visual fields, greater sensitivity to glare, higher reaction times,
and reduced muscle strength, which may result in the older driver having a
higher crash risk. For example, reduction in visual acuity results in older
drivers being less capable to discern letters on road signs, while greater
sensitivity to glare results in older drivers taking a much longer time in
recovering from the disabling effect of glare and may therefore fail to respond
to roadway signs or roadway obstacles, particularly at work zones.
 PEDESTRIAN
CHARACTERISTIC
 What is PEDESTRIAN ?
• A person walking along a road
or in a developed area.
• People with disability
• People in or on wheeled
recreational devices (WRDs)
• People using personal mobility
devices (PMDs)
• People using motorized
mobility devices (MMDs).
PEDESTRIAN AGED GROUPS
Infants and Toddlers
(ages 0-4)
●Just learning to walk.
●Developing peripheral
vision and depth perception.
●Acting impulsively and
unpredictably.
 Young Children
(ages 5-12)

● Are impulsive and unpredictable.

● Have limited peripheral vision.
● Lack experience/training.
● Are short and hard for drivers to see.
● Are susceptible to darting or dashing
into intersections.
 Preteens
(ages 13-14)
● Lack experience.
● Walk and bicycle more.
● Ride more frequently under risky
conditions.
● Get involved in more intersection
dash collisions.
● Have a sense of invulnerability.
High School Aged(ages 15-
18)
● Are very active.
● Feel invincible.
● Are capable of traveling at higher
speeds.
● Attempt to use bicycles, skates,
etc., based on practices carried over
from youth.
 Adults (ages 19-40)
● Are active and fully aware of the
traffic environment.
● Comprise only 1–4 percent of
bicycling population in most
communities.
● Tend to be very vocal and
interested in improving
conditions.
● Are interested in serving as
instructors or task force leaders.
 Middle-Aged Adults (ages 41-65)

● Are still active.

● May experience a
slowing of reflexes, range
of motion, and
observational skills.
 Senior Adults (ages 65+)
● Walk more for exercise/independence.
● Experience a reduction in vision, agility,
balance, speed, concentration, and strength.
● Have difficulty hearing vehicles
approaching from behind.
● Have reduced abilities under low
light/night conditions.
 Pedestrians with Different Needs

● Children.
● Seniors.
● Mobility-impaired.
 Walking Speeds
Pedestrian Type Mean Walking Speed, ft/s

Average adult 4.00

Wheelchair user 3.55

Pedestrian with immobilized knee 3.50

Older/senior adult 2.80

Cane or crutch user 2.62

Below-knee amputee 2.46

Pedestrian with knee arthritis 2.46

Pedestrian with hip arthritis 2.24 to 3.66

Pedestrian with walker 2.07

Above-knee amputee 1.97

4.0 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.2 meters per second (m/s)
Accessible Design Issues

• Sidewalks.
• Ramps.
• Street furniture.
• Pushbuttons.
• Curb cuts/wheelchair ramps.
Sidewalks
Ramps
Street Furniture
Pushbuttons
Curb Cuts/Wheelchair Ramps
• Pedestrians can have many different needs and
abilities.

• Accessible design will allow ALL pedestrians

to more easily and safely navigate the system.
 VEHICLE
CHARACTERIS
TICS
Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly
based on the static, kinematic, and dynamic
characteristics of vehicles.
● Static characteristics include the weight and size of the
vehicle
● Kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the
vehicle without considering the forces that cause the
motion.
● Dynamic characteristics involve the forces that cause
the motion of the vehicle.
Static Characteristics
The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important
factor in the determination of design standards for several
physical components of the highway. These include lane
width, shoulder width, length and width of parking bays,
and lengths of vertical curves.
Table 3.1 shows some features of static characteristics for which limits were prescribed. A range of
maximum allowable values is given for each feature.
Since the passage of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of
1982, the maximum allowable truck sizes and weights on Interstate
and other qualifying federal aided highways are at most:
● 80,000 lb gross weight, with axle loads of up to 20,000 lb for
single axles and
● 34,000 lb for tandem (double) axles
● 102 in. width for all trucks
● 48 ft length for semitrailers and trailers
● 28 ft length for each twin trailer
The federal regulations also stipulate that the overall maximum gross weight for a
group of two or more consecutive axles should be determined from
Eq. 3.2:

where
W = overall gross weight (calculated to the nearest 500 lb)
L = the extreme of any group of two or more consecutive axles (ft)
N = number of axles in the group under consideration
States are no longer allowed to set limits on overall truck length. It is therefore necessary that all
vehicles be classified so that representative static characteristics for all vehicles within a particular
class can be provided for design purposes. American Association of Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) has selected four general classes of vehicles:

General class of vehicles:

● Passenger cars
● Buses
● Trucks
● Recreational vehicles
 ● Passenger cars ● Trucks
1. Sport/ utility vehicles 1. Single-unit trucks
2. Minivans 2. Truck tractor-semitrailer
3. Vans combinations
4. Pick-up trucks 3. Truck tractor with semitrailers in
combination with full trailers
● Bus class
1. Intercity motor coaches and city ● Recreational vehicles
transit 1. Motor homes
2. Cars with camper trailers
2. School bus
3. Cars with boat trailers
3. Articulated buses
4. Motor homes pulling cars
* = Design Vehicle with 48-ft trailer as adopted in 1982 Surface Transportation Assistance Act
(STAA).
** = Design vehicle with 53-ft trailer as grandfathered in with 1982 Surface Transportation
Assistance Act (STAA).
a = This is overhang from the back axle of the tandem axle assembly.
b = Combined dimension is 19.4 ft and articulating section is 4ft wide.
c = Combined dimension is typically 10.0 ft.
d = Combined dimension is typically 10.0 ft.
e = Combined dimension is typically 12.5 ft.
f = Dimensions are for a 150 –200 hp tractor excluding any wagon length.
g = To obtain the total length of tractor and one wagon, add 18.5 ft to tractor length. Wagon length is
measured from front of drawbar to rear of wagon, and drawbar is 6.5 ft long.
• WB1, WB2, WB3, and WB4 are the effective vehicle wheelbases, or distances between axle groups,
starting at the front and working towards the back of each unit.
• S is the distance from the rear effective axle to the hitch point or point of articulation.
• T is the distance from the hitch point or point of articulation measured back to the center of the
next axle or center of tandem axle assembly
Figure 3.1 Examples of Different Types of Trucks
 Kinematic
Characteristics
 Kinematic Characteristics
● The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability
of the vehicle. Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations,
such as passing maneuvers and gap acceptance. Also, the dimensioning of highway
features such as freeway ramps and passing lanes is often governed by acceleration
rates. Acceleration is also important in determining the forces that cause motion.
Therefore, a study of the kinematic characteristics of the vehicle primarily
involves a study of how acceleration rates influence the elements of motion, such
as velocity and distance. We therefore review in this section the mathematical
relationships among acceleration, velocity, distance, and time
 Constant acceleration
● the second derivative of the distance with respect to time is constant which
is equal to the acceleration of the vehicle at that moment.
 Varying acceleration
● Where: , and are constants
● is the velocity at any time t

● The acceleration of a vehicle is dependent on the velocity of the vehicle at

any time. The lower the speed, the higher the acceleration rate. The
relationship between acceleration and velocity depends on some factors,
however, the most commonly used model for acceleration-velocity
relationship can be seen above.
Example:
 DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Refers to the forces that acts on the vehicle while in motion.
The following are:
● Air Resistance
● Grade Resistance
● Rolling Resistance
● Curve Resistance
 AIR RESISTANCE
- is the force required by the vehicle to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it
as well as the force due to the frictional action of the air around it, which is related to the
cross-sectional area of the vehicle in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the motion
and to the square of the speed of the vehicle.
It is estimated from the following formula:
● Ra=0.5
Where:
𝑅𝑎= Air Resistance (kg)
𝑝= Air Density at Sea Level (1.227 kg/m3); less at higher elevations
𝐶𝐷= Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient (0.4 for passenger cars, 0.5 to 0.8 for trucks but the
typical value is 0.5)
𝐴= Frontal Cross-Sectional Area (m2)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/hr)𝑔= Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
 GRADE RESISTANCE

Grade Resistance is the component of the weight of the vehicle acting

downward, along the plane of the highway when the vehicle is moving
up the grade.

Grade Resistance = Weight of Vehicle x Grade (in Decimal)

 ROLLING RESISTANCE

Rolling Resistance is the sum of the forces that resist the motion of the vehicle which includes
the frictional effects of the moving parts within the vehicle itself as well as the frictional slip between
the pavement surface and the tires. The rolling resistance depends on the speed of the vehicle and the
type of pavement.
A. For Passenger Cars on Smooth Pavement

Rr=(Crs+0.077Crvu2)W

Where:
𝑅𝑟= Rolling Resistance (kg)
𝐶𝑟𝑠= Constant (typically 0.012 for passenger cars)
𝐶𝑟𝑣= Constant (typically 0.000007 s2/m2 for passenger cars)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/h)
𝑊= Gross Vehicle Weight (kg)
For Trucks on Smooth Pavement:

Rr=(Ca+0.278Cbu2)W

Where:
𝑅𝑟= Rolling Resistance (kg)
𝐶𝑟𝑠= Constant (typically 0.02445 for passenger cars)
𝐶𝑟𝑣= Constant (typically 0.00147 s/m for passenger cars)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/h)
𝑊= Gross Vehicle Weight (kg)
 CURVE RESISTANCE
Curve Resistance is the sum of the forces that resist the forward motion of the vehicle as it
maneuvers on a curve which are acting primarily on the front wheels of the vehicle. The curve
resistance depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at
which the vehicle is moving.

It is estimated from the ff. formula:

Where: Rc=0.5
𝑅𝑐= Curve Resistance (kg)
𝑅= Radius of Curvature (m)
𝑔= Acceleration of Gravity (9.81 m/s2)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/h)
𝑊= Gross Vehicle Weight (kg)
 POWER REQUIREMENTS

The power capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of horsepower (hp) the

engine can produce to overcome air, grade, curve, and friction resistance forces
and put the vehicle in motion.
● P=
Where:
𝑅= Sum of Resistance to Motion (kg)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/h)
𝑃= Horsepower Delivered (hp)
 BRAKING DISTANCE

Horizontal component of the distance travelled during braking (that is, from the time the
brakes are applied to the time the vehicle comes to rest).

Db=

Where:

𝐷𝑏= Braking Distance (m)

𝑢= Vehicle Speed (m/s)
𝑓= coefficient of friction between the tires and the road pavement
G = the absolute value of the grade; + for uphill, and –for downhill.
AASHTO represents the coefficient of friction as “a/g”. Also AASHTO recommends that the deceleration rate of 3.41 m/s2 be used as this
is a comfortable deceleration rate for most drivers. This rate is further justified because many studies have shown that when most drivers
need to stop in an emergency, the rate of deceleration is greater than 4.51 m/s2)
Incorporating the provisions of AASHTO, the equation for braking distance then becomes:

Db=
Where:

𝐷𝑏= Braking Distance (m)

𝑢= Vehicle Speed (km/h)
𝑎= AASHTO recommended deceleration of 3.41 m/s2
G = the absolute value of the grade; + for uphill, and –for downhill
g =acceleration due to gravity equal to 9.81 m/s2
 ESTIMATING VELOCITIES

It is sometimes necessary to estimate the speed of the vehicle just before it is

involved in a crash. This may be done by using the braking-distance equations if
skid marks can be seen on the pavement.
Step 1. Measure the length of the skid marks for each tire and determine the
average. The result is assumed to be the braking distance 𝐷𝑏 of the vehicle.
Step 2. Determine the coefficient of friction 𝑓 performing trial runs at the site
under similar weather conditions, using vehicles whose tires are in a state similar
to that of the tires of the vehicle involved in the accident.
Step 3. Use the value of 𝑓 obtained in step 2 to estimate the unknown velocity uu just prior to
impact.
Estimated Speed of the Vehicle when the vehicle has stopped without crashing.
uu =( )uk

Estimated Speed of the Vehicle when the vehicle has crashed and the final velocity u1 is known.
uu =( )
Where:
Db= Braking Distance of the vehicle involved in the crash (m)
uu= Vehicle Speed before the crash (km/h)
uk= Vehicle speed during the trial run (km/h)
Dk= Distance travelled while braking during the trial run (m)
u1=known Vehicle speed when the impact took place (km/h)
 MINIMUM RADIUS OF A CIRCULAR CURVE

When a vehicle is moving around a circular curve, the vehicle is being acted upon
by forces as shown in the figure, one of which is the centrifugal force and the
other is the friction between the pavement and the vehicle tires.
These forces can cause the vehicle to tip over when not suppressed.
In order to balance these forces, the road is either inclined
toward the center of the curve or the vehicle is provided with
enough friction with the pavement. The inclination of the
roadway toward the center of the curve is called “Super-
elevation” or “Super-e”.
The minimum radius of a circular curve is given by the following equation:

R=
R=

Where:
𝑅= Radius of Curvature (m)
𝑢= Vehicle Speed (m/s)
𝑔= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
𝑒= super elevation (-)
𝑓𝑠=Coefficient of side friction (-)
There are, however, stipulated maximum values that should be used for
either “e” of “fs”. Several factors control the maximum value for the super-
elevation. These include the location of the highway (urban or rural),
weather conditions, and the distribution of slow-moving traffic.
For rural areas, maximum “e” of 0.10 is generally used.
For expressways located in urban areas, maximum “e” of 0.80 is generally
used.
If there is no friction, fs=0, then e=. This results in the situation where the
pressure on the outer and inner wheels are the same; requiring very high
super-elevation “e”.
If there is no super-elevation provided, 𝑒=0, then f=.This results in a high
coefficient of friction.
If fs=0.15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 fs=0.15, then for safe travelling speed is given by u=fgR
called the restricted speed.
Normally, fs=0.15and 𝑒<0.07.
 ROAD
CHARACTERISTICS
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

Sight Distance
● Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see
ahead at any particular time.
● The sight distance available at each point of the highway
must be such that, when a driver is traveling at the highway’s
design speed, adequate time is given after an object is
observed in the vehicle’s path to make the necessary evasive
maneuvers without colliding with the object.
● The two types of sight distance are:(1) Stopping sight distance
(2) Passing sight distance.
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

Stopping Sight Distance

● It is usually taken as the minimum sight distance required
for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the
vehicle’s path without hitting that object.
Analysis of stopping sight distance:
The stopping sight distance of a vehicle is the sum of
● distance traveled during perception-reaction time and
● the distance traveled during braking, or SSD is
■ SSD=1.47ut+
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Stopping Sight Distance
SSD=1.47ut+
Stopping Sight Distance ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

• The SSD specifications provide the minimum

horizontal curve radii and vertical curve lengths
that must be built for every given roadway.
• be noted that the values given for SSD in Table
3.4 are for horizontal alignment and the grade is
zero.
• The SSDs given are usually adequate for ordinary
conditions, when the stimulus is expected by the
driver
• Longer SSDs are often needed, though, because
the perception-reaction time is substantially
greater when the stimulus is unexpected
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Stopping Sight Distance
• This longer sight distance is the
decision sight distance; it is defined
by AASHTO as the “distance required
for a driver to detect an unexpected
or otherwise difficult-to-perceive
information source
• The decision sight distances depend
on the type of maneuver required to
avoid the hazard on the road, and
also on whether the road is located
in a rural or urban area.
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

Passing Sight Distance

● The passing sight distance is the minimum
sight distance required on a two-lane, two
way highway that will permit a driver to
complete a passing maneuver without
colliding with an opposing vehicle and
without cutting off the passed vehicle.
● In determining minimum passing sight
distances for design purposes, only single
passes (that is, a single vehicle passing a
single vehicle) are considered.
 Passing Sight Distance
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

Assumptions to be made during Passing Maneuver:

1. The vehicle being passed (impeder) is traveling at a uniform speed.
2. The speed of the passing vehicle is reduced and is behind the
impeder as the passing section is entered.
3. on arrival at a passing section, sometime elapses during which the
driver decides whether to undertake the passing maneuver.
4. If the decision is made to pass, the passing vehicle is accelerated
during the passing maneuver, and the average passing speed is about
10 mi/h more than the speed of the impeder vehicle.
5. A suitable clearance exists between the passing vehicle and any
opposing vehicle when the passing vehicle re-enters the right lane.
 
Passing Sight Distance
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

Four components :
d1 = distance traversed during perception-
reaction time and during initial
acceleration to the point where the
passing vehicle just enters the left lane.
d2 = distance travelled during the time the
passing vehicle is traveling in the left lane.
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle
and the opposing vehicle at the end of the
passing maneuver.
d4 = distance moved by the opposing
vehicle during two thirds of the time the
passing vehicle is in the left lane (usually
taken to be 2/3 d2).
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Passing Sight Distance
The distance d1 is obtained from the expression
d1=0.278t1u-m+
Where: t1= time for initial maneuver(sec)
a= average acceleration rate (m/h/sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (mi/h)
m= difference in speeds of passing and impeder vehicles
The distance d2 is obtained from d2=0.278ut2

t1= time passing vehicle is traveling in left lane(sec)

u = average speed of passing vehicle (mi/h)
• The clearance distance d3 between the passing vehicle and the opposing
vehicle at the completion of the passing maneuver has been found to
vary between 100 ft. and 300 ft.
 ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
Passing Sight Distance