DRYING

INTRODUCTION : Drying
Most popular unit operation
Heat transfer and mass transfer
Changes on products
Drying --- not just the matter of
temperature but others : RH
Availability : simple to sophisticated (sun
drying to spray drying, freeze drier and
DIC.
 Drying Methods
SUN DRYING MECHANICAL DRYING

 Traditional  Artificial
 Low cost  High capital cost
 Simple to operate  Requires skilled dryer
 Weather dependent operator
 Unreliable during wet  Independent of weather
season conditions
 Non-uniform drying  Reliable at any season
 Requires frequent  Uniform drying (varies with
stirring to control dryer types)
uniformity of drying  High quality
 Quality losses  Higher profit for commercial
(yellowing, sprouting, operation
fissures)  Fits well with bulk handling
 Rising cost of labour and packaging system
Drying medium=moist air
Moist air = dry air+ water vapor
Dry air = several gases: N2, O2, Ar,
CO2, Ne
Definition :
◦ Vapor pressure o Dry bulb temp
◦ Relative Humidity o Specific volume
◦ Enthalpy o Dew Point temp
◦ Humidity ratio o Wet bulb temp
Psychrometric chart
◦ Easy to use than calculation
◦ Different psychrometric chart: differe with
respect to
 Barometer pressure
 Temperature range
 Number of thermodynamic included
 Choice of coordinate
Sensible Heating and Cooling
◦ The air at constant humidity ratio added to or
withdrawn from the drying air in a heat
exchanger.
Heating with Humidifiying
◦ Energy is added to the air by direct
combustion of gas in the air
◦ Not only heat but also a small amount of water
vapor is added to the air
Cooling with Dehumidifying
◦ Air is often cooled to below the dew point
temperature by passing it over an evaporator
◦ Since the air is saturated with water vapor at
the dew point temp, water condenses out the
air as soon as its temperature drop below the
dew point temp.
Drying
◦ Adiabatic process where the heat required for
evaporation of the sample moisture is supplied
solely by the drying air, without transfer of
heat by conduction or radiation from the
surrounding.
Mixing of Two Airstream
◦ Different mass flow rate, temp and humidity
ratio are mixed

two air stream with :

mass flow rates m1 and m2
TemperatureT1 and T2
Humidity H1 and H 2
The mixture : m3 , T3 , H 3
m1  m2  m3
m1 H1  m2 H 2  m3 H 3
m1h1  m2 h2  m3h3
m1 (h3  h1 )  m2 (h2  h3 )
m1 ( H 3  H1 )  m2 ( H 2  H 3 )
thus
m1 h2  h3 H 2  H 3
 
m2 h3  h1 H 3  H1
Exercises:
1. Determine from psychrometric chart, the
thermodynamic of moist air at 29.4 oC dry
bulb temp, 21.1 oC wet bulb temp and
barometric pressure 1 atm
2. A bin of grain is to be chilled with air at 100%
RH, a dry bulb temp 0f 4.4 oC and air flow
ratte of 1699.2 m3/hr. If the ambient air
condition are 29.4 oC dry bulb temp, 21.1 oC
wet bulb temp, determine the amount of heat
and moisture that has to be removed per hour
from the inlet air by a grain chilling unit.
3. A bin of grain is to be dried with air at a dry
bulb temp of 43.3 oC and an air flow rate of
1699.2 m3/hr. If the the ambient air condition
are 29.4 oC dry bulb temp and 21.1 oC wet
bulb temp, determine the amount of sensible
heat required per hour to heat the air if the
average outlet relative humidity of the air after
it has passed through the grain is 85%. Find
the amount of moisture removed from the
grain per hour.
Pem
buk
tian
 The State of Drying
Drying usually occurs in a number of stages → characterized by different
dehydration rates in each of the
stages.
• Constant drying
rate.

• From 8.7 g H2O/ g

dm to 6.00 g H2O/ g
dm.

• Vaporizing is
• First Falling rate period. occuring at the
• Slight increase in the product (
• Second falling rate period. product surface and
> wet bulb temp of drying air). free water with an
• Another falling rate zone. • Free moisture aw of 1 is always
• The equilibrium relative humidity for theis no longer
• The region of the sorption available
material begins to drop below 100%. at the surface. available at the
isotherm where water is held in • The rate of drying is controlled surface to vaporize.
mono- or multi molecular layers. by moisture diffusion toward
• Water is held by multi molecular
• Dehydration sholud be the surface. • The rate of drying is
adsorption and capilary condensation.
terminated at any point along • Most of the water in the limited by the rate
the line D – E. material is still free (aw = 1). at which heat is
• • The
Point E represents the heat of vaporization of water at this transmitted to the
stage
equilibrium moisture of the dehydration process is
content material from air.
where dehydration stops than the
higher heat of
vaporization
because the aw values of the of pure water (since heat of
adsorption and vaporization must be • The product
surface and air are equal temperature is
provided).
usually at the wet
bulb temp of the
• Vaporization occurs in the interior rather drying air.
than at the surface and surface and water
vapor has to diffuse to the surface before
Condition
• The desorption of isotherm.
• The rate of drying of apple slice in cabinet dryer with air flowing
accross the trays containing the slices at 0.3m/s ,
65.6 oC, and 20% RH.

• A–B
• Constant drying rate.

• From 8.7 g H2O/ g dm to 6.00 g H2O/ g dm.

• Vaporizing is occuring at the product surface and free water with an a w of 1 is always
available at the surface to vaporize.

• The rate of drying is limited by the rate at which heat is transmitted to the material from
air.

• The product temperature is usually at the wet bulb temp of the drying air.

• The critical moisture content → moisture content at point B.

 B–C
• First Falling rate period.
• Slight increase in the product ( > wet bulb temp of drying air).
• Free moisture is no longer available at the surface.
• The rate of drying is controlled by moisture diffusion toward the
surface.
• Most of the water in the material is still free (aw = 1).

C–D
• Second falling rate period.

• The equilibrium relative humidity for the material begins to drop below 100%.

• Water is held by multi molecular adsorption and capilary condensation.

• The heat of vaporization of water at this stage of the dehydration process is higher than the
heat of vaporization of pure water (since heat of adsorption and vaporization must be provided).

• Vaporization occurs in the interior rather than at the surface and surface and water vapor has to
diffuse to the surface before it mixes with the flowing steam of air.
D–E
• Another falling rate zone.
• The region of the sorption isotherm where water
is held in mono- or multi molecular layers.
• Dehydration sholud be terminated at any point
along the line D – E.
• Point E represents the equilibrium moisture
content where dehydration stops because the aw
values of the surface and air are equal.
Commercial Food Drying Equipment
• Preparation and Pre Treatment:

• Especially for fruits and Vegetables

• Washing
• Slicing
• Peeling
• Blanching
• Chemical Treatment (SO2, Salt, Sugar)
Characteristic of Food Drying Operation
and Equipment
• Sun Dryer
• Examples: Grapes (raisin), apricots, figs, prunes and dates
etc., coffee beans, cereal grains, fish
• Pre treatment:

• 1. • dipping in alkali solution containing

vegetable oil or ethyl oleate

• Drying rate ↑by ↑the moisture

permeability
• Example: Grapes

• 2. Fumigation with SO2 or other permitted insecticides

during storage and before packaging
• Example: apricots
Pre Treatment
Blanching
Sulfur Dioxide Treatment
Salting or curing
Other dipping pretreatment
Freezing Pretreatment
Cooking
• Solar Dryer
• A form of Convective drying → the air is heated by solar energy
in a solar collector

• Solar energy → renewable energy sources, economic

• Common flat-plate collector:
• -Black plate
- Transparent cover
• Incident solar energy→ varied with location
• Hot climate:
• 0.6 kW/m2 (7h/days) → 0.6 Х 3600 = 2,16 MJ/h or 15 MJ/m2 day
• Evaporation of water at 40oC 24 MJ/kg → the mean 2.16/3 =
0.72 kg/m2 h
• For example: evap. capacity for typical mechanical convective dryer
= 100 kg/h → thus 100/0.72 = 1400 m2 of collector surface
• Bin, Silo, and Tower Dryer
• Usually for grains (from 25% - ± 15%)

• Mechanical aeration of teh stored grain is needed to prevent local

overheating and spoilage

• Temperature: 43oC (rice) to 60oC (wheat) → for efficient: high air

flow rates = 450 m3/h m3
• Rotary Dryer
• Inclined long drum (cylinder)

• Rotating slowly

• Tumbling action

• High air/gas temp → short residence time

• Used for granulated sugar,

• and some grains
• Fluid Bed Dryer
• Fast drying equipment

• For food material in

• granular form: grains, peas, etc.

• Main: Perporated
• Plenum → air passed→
• Fluidize the sample
• Spouted Bed Dryer
• Special type of fluid bed dryer
• The granular material is circulated vertically in a tail drying
chamber
Pneumatic Flash Dryer
2
dp (  s   )
v
18
v= terminal velocity of the particles
d= the mean particle diameter
ρs= density of solid
ρ= density of air
η= viscosity of air
•Temp up to 130oC
Kinematic viscosity = viscosity/density, pada suhu
80 oC = 0.0294 mPas=0.0294 cPoise
• Tray/Cabinet Dryer
• Simplest convective dryers
• For drying: Small batches of food material in form of pieces
such as sliced fruits and vegetables.
• Consist of a stacle of trays→ placed in a cabinet and are
equipped with HE and a mechanical fan to circulate the heated
air through the trays.
• Tunnel Dryer
• Extension of the tray/cabinet dryers, with several truck moving
slowly in a long tunnel, while coming in contact with hot air in
parallel, counter or combined flow.
• Conveyor Belt Dryer
• High air velocity used (3-6m/s)
• Temp range = 70 – 100oC
• Typical medium scale:
• Long = 30 – 40m
• Width = 2.5 – 3m
• Depth = 5 – 12cm
• Spray Dryer
• For liquid food and food suspension
• Atomizer:
• Pressure nozzle → (narrow size distribution)→ 1000kg/h →
multiple
• -Centrifugal →
1. wider range of droplet size
2. higher capacity
3. larger size
- Two fluid(pneumatic) →used in small spray dryer
• Temp of exit air = 70 – 100oC
• Residence time = 5 – 30 s
• High heat consumption
• Drum Dryer
• Contain single or double drum
• Can be vacuumed
• Effective→ no interference of process heating air
• Rotational speed : 1 – 10 RPM
• Vacuum and Freeze Dryer
• The most expensive drying equipment.
• For drying sensitive, high value food product, like coffee, fruit
juices, vegetables extract, mushroom, dairy product, meat and
chicken.
• Mostly batch operations of lower capacity tahn convective dryers.
• Vacuum: P = 10 mbar (8oC); evaporation
• Freezer dryer: P < 1mbar (- 20oC); sublimation
• Freeze dried product: retain their shape, very high porosity and
rehydrate instantly
• Freeze dryer vs convective dryer:
1. Energy requirement: 10 MJ/kg water evaporated vs 4MJ/kg water (extra
need for rehydration and vacuum)
2. Higher sublimation of ice (2.84 MJ/kg at -15oC) compared to the heat of
evaporation of water (2.26MJ/kg at 100oC)
Sublimation is only possible under the
condition below the triple point of the water
(T = 0.01 oC and P= 610.5 Pa).
• Special Food Dryer
• Used in small-scale food processing operations to dehydrate some
sensitive food products (fruits and vegetables)

• Mostly batch
• Microwave & dielectic dryer
• Infrared dryer
• Tumbling dryer
• Centrifugal dryer
• Explosion puffing
• Foam-mat drying
• Accoustic dryers
• Osmotic dehydrations
EFECT OF DRYING ON FOOD
Changes During Drying
Shrinkage
Density
Porosity
Caking and Stickiness
Crystallinity and Phase Structure
Crust Formation
Checking and Breakage
SHRINKAGE
SHRINKAGE
REFERENCES
 Broker, D.B.; Bakker-Arkema, F.W.; Hall, C.W1. 1992. Drying and
Storage of Grains and Oilseeds. An Avi Book. New York.
 Fennema, O.R. Water and Ice in Food Chemistry. Third Edition.
Fennema, O.R. (ed). 1996. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York
 Mujumdar, A.S. (ed). 2000. Drying Technology in Agriculture and
Food Sciences.. Science Publisher, Inc. Enfield.
 Saravacos, G.D. and Kostaropoulus, A.E. 2002. Handbook of
Food Processing Equipment. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publisher.
New York.
 Toledo, R.T. 1994. Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering.
Chapman & Hall. New York.
THE END