METALLURGY

INTRODUCTION
 METALLURGY
Theory:100 Marks Term Work: 25 Marks

Syllabus
Unit 1:Structure Property Relation
Unit 2: Testing of metals
Unit 3: Ferrous metals and Designation
Unit 4: Heat Treatment
Unit 5: Powder Metallurgy
& Non Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Unit6: Introduction to Advanced Material
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
What is Metallurgy?
Definition:
Metallurgy is branch of science which
deals with extraction of metals from
their ores
The scope of metallurgical science has
expanded considerably and now it is
commonly studied under:
1. Extraction Metallurgy
2. Process Metallurgy
3. Physical Metallurgy
 Syllabus
Unit 1:Structure Property Relation

 Introduction to engineering materials

 Elastic and plastic deformation

 Deformation in a single crystal and

polycrystalline Metal

 Imperfections in a crystal
 Syllabus

Unit 1:Structure Property Relation

 Plastic deformation mechanisms:slip and twin

 Changes in properties due to deformation

 Re-crystallisation

 Cold working

 Hard working
 Syllabus
Unit 2: Testing of metals

 Tension Test
 Hardness test- Brinell. Poldi, Vickers,
Rockwell, Rockwell superficial. Micro
hardness test.
 Impact tests- Charpy and Izod Test
 Fatigue Test
 Creep test
 Erichsen Cupping Test
 Syllabus
Unit 2: Testing of metals

Non Destructive Testing:

 Visual Inspection
 Magna flux
 Dye penetration test
 Sonic and Ultra Sonic Test
 Radiography
 Eddy Current Test.
 Syllabus
Unit 3: Ferrous metals and Designation

 Allotropy of Iron

 Iron-iron carbide diagram

 Plain carbon steels

 Limitations of plain carbon steel

 Syllabus
Unit 3: Ferrous metals and Designation

 Advantages of alloy steels

 Effect of alloying elements on mechanical
properties of steel
 Alloy steels
 Tool steels
 Stainless steels
 Cast irons
 Designation of steels and cast iron
 Syllabus
Unit 4: Heat Treatment

 Annealing

Normalizing

Hardening

Tempering.
 Syllabus
Unit 4: Heat Treatment

Surface hardening treatments:

 Carburizing
 Nitriding
 Carbonitriding
 Tufftride&Sursulf
 Induction hardening
 Flame hardening
 Syllabus
Unit 5: Powder Metallurgy and Non Ferrous
Metals and alloys.
 Stepsin Powder metallurgical
 Advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy
 Production of sintered structural components:
• Self lubricated bearing
• Cemented carbides
• Cermets
• Refractory metals,
• Electrical contact material
• Friction material
 Syllabus
Unit 5: Powder Metallurgy and Non Ferrous
Metals and alloys.
Non ferrous alloys:

Copper and its alloys

Aluminium and its alloys

Babbits
 Syllabus
Unit 6: Introduction to Advanced
Material

 Composite Materials

Engineering Ceramics

Cryogenic Materials

High Temperature Materials

 Books Recommended

 Engineering Metallurgy By R.A. Higgins, Viva

Books Pvt Ltd
 Properties of Engineering Materials by
R.A.Higgins, Viva Books Pvt Ltd
 Material science and metallurgy for Engineers
by Dr V.D.Kodgire
 The Science and Engineering of materials by
Donald R Askeland et al, Thomson
Brooks/cole
 Principles of Material Science and Engineering
By W.F. Smith, McGraw Hill Publication
 Introduction To Physical Metallurgy By Sidney
H Avner, McGraw Hill Publication
Unit 1:
Structure Property Relation
Unit 1:Structure Property Relation
In this unit we are going to
study:

 Types of Engineering Materials

 Elastic and Plastic Deformation

 Indexing to Lattice planes and

directions

 Imperfections in crystals
Unit 1:Structure Property Relation
In this unit we are going to study:
 Plastic deformation mechanisms:
slip and twin

 Critical Resolved Shear Stress

 Work Hardening

 Fracture Mechanics
Unit 1:Structure Property Relation
In this unit we are going to study:
 Changes in properties due to deformation

 Deformation of single crystals and

polycrystalline metals

 Re-crystallisation

 Cold working & Hot working

 Types of Engineering Materials
Broadly Engineering Materials are classified as:

Engineering Materials

Polymers Composites

Metals &Alloys Ceramics

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers

Polymers Polymer
 Types of Engineering Materials
Metals & Alloys are futher classified as:
Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Steels Cu-Alloys Al-Alloys

Cast Irons
Ni-Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels White Cast Iron
Alloy Steels Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
S.G. Cast Iron
Chilled Cast Iron
 Types of Engineering Materials
Composites are futher classified as:
Composites

Laminar Particle Fibre

Reinforced Reinforced
 Types of Engineering Materials
Ceramics are futher classified as:
Ceramics

Metal Oxides Nitrides Carbides

Alumina
Beryllia
Zirconia
Glass
Glass Ceramics
 Types of Atomic & Molecular Bonds
 Net Decrease in Potential Energy of Atoms
 More Stable Energy Condition

Chemical Bonds Between Atoms

Primary Secondary
(Strong Bonds) (Weak Bonds)

Permanent Dipole
Ionic Covalent Metallic
Fluctuating Dipole
Ionic Bonds
 Transfer
of electrons from one
atom to another to produce ions

 Positively
charged cations
bonded with negatively charged
anions by electostatic or
coulombic force of attraction.

 Ionic
bonds are relatively strong
nondirectional bond
Ionic Bonds
Ionic Bonds

Magnesium (Z=12) and Oxygen (Z=8)

Covalent Bonds
 Sharing of electrons from one
atom to another to produce ions
 Covalent bonds have localized
direction
 Atoms most commonly share
their outer s and p electrons
with other atoms so that each
atom attains the noble-gas
electron configuration.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds
 Metallic Bonds
 Valence electrons are not
associated with nucleus of any
particular atom
 Valence electrons form low
density “electron charge cloud”
or “electron gas”
 Metallic bonds are nondirectional
Metallic Bonds
Permanent Dipole Bonds
A dipole in a molecule exists
due to asymmetry in its
electron density distribution

A weak intermolecular bonds

are formed between molecules
which possess permanent
dipoles
 These are called as van der
Waals bonds
Permanent Dipole Bonds
Fluctuating Dipole Bonds
A very weak electric dipole
bonding take place among
atoms due to asymmetry in its
electron density distribution
around nuclei.

 Sinceelectron density is
continuously changing with
time bonds are termed as
fluctuating dipole bond
Crystal Structures

Space Lattice Unit Cell

 Crystal Systems
1.Cubic Crystal System
Crystallographical Axial
Bravais Lattice
Length
 Simple
a=b=c
 Body-Centred
Crystallographical
Angles:  Face-centred
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal Systems

1. Bravais Lattice of Cubic

Crystal System

Simple BCC

FCC
 Crystal Systems
2.Tetragonal Crystal
System Bravais Lattice
Crystallographical Axial
Length  Simple

a=b≠c  Body-Centred

Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal Systems

2. Bravais Lattice of Tetragonal

Crystal System

Simple BCC
 Crystal Systems
3.Orthorhombic Crystal
Bravais Lattice
System
Crystallographical Axial  Simple
Length
 Body-Centred
a≠ b≠c
 Face-centred
Crystallographical
Angles:  Base Centred
α=β=γ=90°
 Crystal Systems
3. Bravais Lattice of Orthorhombic Crystal
System

BCC
Simple

FCC Base Centred

 Crystal Systems
4.Rhombohydral
Crystal System Bravais Lattice
Crystallographical Axial
Length  Simple

a= b=c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β=γ ≠ 90°
 Crystal Systems
4. Bravais Lattice of Rhombohydral
 Crystal Systems
5.Hexagonal Crystal
System Bravais Lattice
Crystallographical Axial
Length  Simple

a= b ≠ c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α=β= 90° γ=1200
 Crystal Systems
5. Bravais Lattice of Hexagonal
Crystal System
 Crystal Systems
6.Monoclinic Crystal
System Bravais Lattice
Crystallographical Axial
Length  Simple

a≠ b ≠ c  Base Centred
Crystallographical
Angles:
α=γ= 90° ≠ β
 Crystal Systems
6. Bravais Lattice of Monoclinic
Crystal System

Simple Base
Centred
 Crystal Systems
7.Triclinic Crystal
System Bravais Lattice
Crystallographical Axial
Length  Simple

a≠b≠c

Crystallographical
Angles:
α≠β≠γ
 Crystal Systems
7. Bravais Lattice of Triclinic

Simple
Crystal System and Bravais Lattices
S. System Axial Lengths and Angles Bravais Lattice
N.
1 Cubic Three equal axes at right angels, Simple
Body-Centred
a=b=c, α=β=γ=90° Face-centred
2 Tetragonal Three axes at right angles,Two equal, Simple
Body-Centred
a=b≠c, α=β=γ=90°
3 Orthorhombic Three unequal axes at right angles Simple
Body-Centred
a ≠b≠c, α=β=γ=90° Base-Centred
Face-centred
4 Rhombohedral Three equal axes, equally inclined, Simple
a=b=c α=β=γ≠90°
5 Hexagonal Two equal coplanar axes at 1200, third axis at Simple
right angles,
a=b=c, α=β=90° γ=120 0
6 Monoclinic Three unequal axes, one pair not at right Simple
angles, Base-Centred
a≠b≠c, α= γ =90° β≠ 90°
7 Triclinic Three unequal axes, unequally inclined and Simple
none at right angles,
a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90°
Crystal Structure in Metals
Majority of Metals falls in either
of the following crystal
structure

 BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)
 Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

Examples:α-iron, Mo, W, V, Ta, Cr, Na, K

Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)
 Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

Examples:γ-iron, Cu,Au,Ag,Al,Pb, Ni, Pt

Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
Crystal Structure in Metals
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)

Examples: Mg,Zn,Be,Cd,Co,Zr,Ti
Parameters of Unit Cells
 Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

 Atomic Packing Factor

 Co-ordination Number

 Planar Atomic Density

 Linear Atomic Density

Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. BCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 0
No of Atoms at center: 1
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +0/2+1/1
=2
Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. FCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 6
No of Atoms at center: 0
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +6/2+0/1
=4
Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. HCP:
No of Atoms at corners:12
No of Atoms at faces: 2
No of Atoms at center: 3
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 12/6 +2/2+3/1
=6
Parameters of Unit Cells
Co-ordination Number :- The number of nearest
equidistant neighboring atoms surrounding an atom
under consideration is called co-ordination Number
(or Ligancy)
BCC:8 FCC: 12 HCP:12

APF :- The fractional amount of volume occupied

by atoms in unit cell is called atomic packing factor
(APF)
BCC:0.68 FCC: 0.74 HCP:0.74
 Indexing of Lattice Planes
Definition: Miller indices are the reciprocals of
the fractional intercepts which the plane makes
with the crystallographic axes.
Indexing of Lattice Planes
The procedure for determining the Miller indices for
the cubic crystal plane is as follows :
 Step 1:Choose the plane that does not pass through the
origin at (o,o,o)

 Step 2:Determine the intercepts of the plane in terms of

the crystallographic axes x,y,and z. these intercepts may
be in fractions.

 Step 3:Find the reciprocals of these intercepts.

 Step 4:Clear fractions and determine the smallest set of

whole number which are in the same ratio as the
intercepts.
Indexing of Lattice Planes
(001)
(100)

(010) (010)
Indexing of Lattice Planes
(101)
(110)

(011) (110)

Origin
 Indexing of Lattice Planes Origin
(111)

(111)

Origin
(111)

Origin

(111)
Indexing of Lattice Planes
Indexing of Lattice Directions
Definition: Miller indices of crystallographic
direction are the vector components of the
direction resolved along each of the
coordinates axes and reduced to the smallest
integers.
 Indexing of Lattice Directions
The procedure for determining the Miller indices for
the Crystallographic Direction :

 Step 1:Draw a straight line OD passing through the

origin and parallel to RS
 Step 2:Take any point on line OD such as P and draw
perpendiculars on X-Y, Y-Z and Z-X planes.
 Step 3:Find the fractional intercepts of OL, OM and ON
in terms of axial units (i.e. OL/OA, OM/OB, ON/OC).
 Step 4:Converts these intercepts to smallest integers by
multiplication or division throughout
 Step 5:Enclose these in square brackets, which
represent the Miller indices of the line RS.
Indexing of Lattice Directions
[101]

[110]
[011] [111]
 Indexing of Lattice Directions
[1 1 0]

[110] Origin
Origin
Origin

[1 1 1] 1/2 [210]
Important Crystallographic Plans

(100)
(110)

(111)
Important Crystallographic Directions

[100]
 Planar Atomic Density
1.For BCC
a)(100) :1/a2

b)(110) : 1.414/a

c)(111) : 0.577/a2
 Planar Atomic Density
1.For FCC
a)(100) :2/a2

b)(110) :1.414 /a2

c)(111) : 2.31/a2
 Linear Atomic Density
1.For BCC
a)[100] :1/a

b)[110] : 0.707/a

c)[111] : 1.155/a
 Linear Atomic Density
1.For FCC
a)(100) :1/a

b)(110) : 1.414 /a

c)(111) : 0.577/√3a
Maximum PAD and LAD
Crystal Planar Atomic Linear Atomic
Structure Density Density

BCC (110) [111]

FCC (111) [110]

Miller Indices For HCP
Miller Indices For HCP
Miller Indices For HCP
Miller Indices for Directions in HCP
 Planar & Linear Atomic Density for
HCP

Plane of Maximum
Planar Atomic
Density: (0001)

Plane of Maximum
Linear Atomic
Density:(1120)
Imperfections in crystals

Crystal are like people. It is the

defects that tend to make them
interesting

Colin Humphreys
Imperfections in crystals
 Perfect crystals do not exist; even the
best crystals have 1ppb defects.
 Imperfections or Defect: imperfection
or "mistake" in the regular periodic
arrangement of atoms in a crystal
 Defects, even in very small
concentrations, can have a dramatic impact
on the properties of a material.
 In many situations defects are desirable.
 Why do defects form?

Gibbs Free Energy G

G involves two terms:
E: internal energy
1. Enthalpy H =E+PV P: pressure
V: volume

2. Entropy S

G=H–TS
 Why do defects form?

The introduction of defects increases

entropy S and decreases free energy G

G  H  TS
A minimum value for G is reached
for an optimum concentration of defects
Why do defects form?
Imperfections in crystals
Lattice Vibrations
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
 Impurities
 Vacancies
One Dimension Defects (Line Defect)
 Edge Dislocation
 Screw Dislocation
Two Dimension Defects (Surface Defect)
 Grain Boundaries
 Twin Boundaries
 Stacking Faults
 Low Angle Grain Boundaries
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Vacancy Interstitial
Non-ionic
crystals Impurity
Self Interstitial
Point
Defects Substitutional
Ionic Frenkel defect
crystals

Schottky defect
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
o Vacancy
A vacancy is referred to an atomic site from where
the atom is missing.
o Impurity
An impurity is referred to an foreign atom which
substitutes for or replaces a parent atom in the
crystal (substitutiona impurity) or occupies the
void pace in the parent crystal (interstitial
impurity).
o Self Interstitial
Self interstitial defect occurs when an atom of
lattice gets trapped inside the void space in the
crystal.
 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

vacancy Interstitial
impurity

Substitutional
impurity
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Self-Interstitials:
"extra" atoms of same lattice is positioned
between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
Defects in ionic solids

Frenkel defect

Cation vacancy
+
cation interstitial

Schottky
defect
Cation vacancy
+
anion vacancy
How point defects are formed?
 Plastic Deformation

 High Energy Particle Irradiation

 Temperature
Why do point defects form?

Gibbs Free Energy G

1. Enthalpy H =E+PV E: internal energy

P : pressure
V : volume
2. Entropy S =k ln W k :Boltzmann constant
W :number of
microstates

G=H–TS T: Absolute
temperature
Vacancy increases H of the crystal due to
energy required to break bonds

H = n f
Vacancy increases S of the crystal due to
configurational entropy
 Configurational entropy due to vacancy

Number of atoms: N
Number of vacacies: n
Total number of sites: N+n
The number of microstates:
N n ( N  n)!
W Cn 
n! N !
Increase in entropy S due to vacancies:
( N  n)!
S  k ln W  k ln
n! N !
 k[ln( N  n)! ln n! ln N !]
 Change in G of a crystal due to
vacancy
G H
H  n H f
G of a
perfect
crystal G = H TS
neq
n

TS
S  k[( N  n) ln( N  n)  n ln n  N ln N ]
 Equilibrium concentration of vacancy
S  k[( N  n) ln( N  n)  n ln n  N ln N ]
H  n H f

G  nH f  Tk [( N  n) ln( N  n)  n ln n  N ln N ]

G
0
n n  neq

neq  H f 
 exp  
N  kT 
With neq<<N
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
Equilibrium Vacancy Concentration is
given by:

E
Nv  Nte KT
Where
Nv: Equilibrium Number of Vacancies
Nt :Total Nunber of Atomic Sites
K :Boltzmann’s Constant
E : Energy required to form vacancy
T : Absolute Temp. oK
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
Example 1:The fractional vacancy concentration
near the melting point of a metal is 1 x 10-3.
What will be the fractional vacancy
concentration at half the melting point in 0K?
(Ans:10-6)

Example 2:The fraction of vacancy sites in the

metal is 1 X 10-10 at 5000C. What will be the
fraction of vacancy sites at 10000C?
(Ans:10-6)
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

1. They increase the hardness and tensile

strength due to distortion of the lattice which
hinders the motion of moving dislocation
responsible for plastic deformation.

Tensile Stress
Fields
Compressive Stress
Tensile Stress
Field
Field
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect):
Effect on Properties

2. Vacancies increase the kinetic of diffusion and

phase transformation. This is because by
successive jumps of atoms, it is possible for a
vacancy to move in the lattice.

3. They decrease corrosion resistance of crystal

because of increase in potential energy of the
lattice.

4. They increase the electrical resistance because

of distortion in lattice
One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

These defects produce lattice distortions

centered about a line.

The Main Two Types of Dislocations:

Edge Dislocation

Screw Dislocation
 Edge Dislocation

Dislocations are thought of as extra lattice

planes inserted in the crystal or
missing of plane of atoms
Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
Missing half plane A Defect
An extra half plane…

…or a missing half plane

 What kind of
defect is this?

A line defect?

Or a planar defect?
Extra half plane No extra plane!
Missing plane No missing plane!!!
An extra half plane…

Edge
Dislocation

…or a missing half plane

 e h s i d ds
ne

l w i n en
ea
pla ct

fe a
sta tly ne
ng fe

de v e
i e

ct .
cry rup pla d
n a d

a
l e
y not
ab If a

t
p is
bru
f a
o
o le a n
w h an e c
e h e p l ct
Th o f t d e fe
edg e a s a
t he r e d
Only e conside
b

This is a line defect called an

EDGE DISLOCATION
 Screw Dislocation

The screw dislocations are formed by shear stresses

which are applied in the regions of perfect crystal
which have been separated by a cutting plane

It can be imagined as being produced by cutting the

crystal partway through with a knife and then
shearing one part of the crystal w.r.t. the other
parallel to the cut.

These shear stresses create a region of distorted

crystal lattice in the form of a spiral ramp of distorted
atoms.
Screw Dislocation
 Lin e
on
ti t
lo ca
D i s

S c re w
b || t
b




One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

Dislocations are formed due to:

Plastic Deformation

Solidification

Vacancy Condensation
 Burgers vector

Johannes Martinus
BURGERS

Burger’s vector Burgers vector

Burgers Vector

Burgers vector, b: is a measure of lattice

distortion and is measured as a distance along
the close packed directions in the lattice.

Burgers vector indicate amount and

direction of shift of the lattice due to
dislocation.

Burgers vector is found by Burgers circuit

method.
 S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12 13 14 15 16
F 1
1
9
2
8
3
7 A closed
4
6 Burgers Circuit
in an ideal 5
5
4 crystal 6
7
3
8
2
1 9

16 15 14 13 12 1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
F b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
1
12 13 14 15 16

9 S 1
2
8
3
7 
Map the same 4
6
5
Burgers circuit on a 5

4 real crystal 6
7
3
8
2
1 9

16 15 14 13 12 1 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1

RHFS convention
 Lin e
on
ti t
lo ca
D i s

S c re w
b || t
b




Difference Between Edge
and Screw Dislocation
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

Dislocation is created Dislocations are formed by

1 shear stresses which are
by insertion of extra
applied in the regionsof
half plane in the lattice perfect crystal which have
been separated by a
cutting plane

2
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

3 Burgers vector is Burgers vector is

perpendicular to the parallel to the
dislocation dislocation

In positive Edge In positive Screw

4 Dislocation Extra Dislocation Left-handed
half plane above spiral ramp
the slip plane

b parallel to t
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

In negative Edge In negative Screw

5
Dislocation Extra Dislocation Right-
half plane below handed spiral ramp
the slip plane

b antiparallel to t

The lattice above the

6 Atomic planes
positive dislocation is
surrounding the
in compression and
distorsion undergoes
lattice below is in
shear distortion
tension. Opposite in
negative dislocation
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

During plastic During plastic

7
deformation, direction deformation, direction
of dislocation line is of dislocation line is
parallel to slip direction perpendicular to slip
direction

At elevated At elevated
8 temperature,
temperature,
dislocation leave slip dislocation leave slip
plane by the processes plane by the processes
of dislocation climb of cross-slip
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Elastic strain field associated with an

edge dislocation
Line energy of a dislocation

Elastic energy per unit length of a

dislocation line

1 2
E  b
2
=Shear modulus of the crystal
b=Length of the Burgers vector

Unit: J m1
Effect of Dislocations on Properties
Dislocations have a strong effect on:
Deformation characteristics and
mechanical properties
There is extra energy due to the
dislocation. The energy associated with
them is given by
E = b2 / 2
Recrystallization temperature

Higher the dislocation density,

lower will be recrystallization
temperature
Effect of Dislocations on Properties
Dislocations have a strong effect on:
Phase transformation characteristics
Electical properties
Higher the dislocation density,
higher will be corrosion resistance.
Corrosion resistance

Higher the dislocation density, lower will

be corrosion resistance.
Two Dimension Defects
(Surface Defect)

Grain Boundaries

Twin Boundaries

Stacking Faults

Low Angle Grain Boundaries

Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundary is a defect which separate grain of
different orientation from each other in
polycrystalline material

Grain
Boundary

Grain 2
Grain 1
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries
Grain Boundaries

Photomicrograph an iron
chromium alloy. 100X.
Some of important effect of Grain boundaries
 As the atomic packing in grain boundaries is lower
than within the grains, atomics diffusion takes
place more rapidly than in the grain.

 Because of their high energy grain boundaries

serve as preferential sites for solid state reactions
such as diffusion phase transformations etc.
Some of important effect of Grain boundaries

 At room temperature grain boundaries also restrict

plastic flow by making it difficult for the movement
of dislocations in the grain boundary region.

 High angle grain boundaries are boundaries of high

surface energy (e.g. grain boundary of Cu has a
surface energy of about 600 mJ/m2 as compare to
its twin boundary energy of 25mJ/ m2). Hence grain
boundaries are more suspectitable for corrosion.
 Grain boundaries affect on mech properties.
Low Angle Grain Boundaries

Grain Boundary: low and high angle

One grain orientation can be obtained by
rotation of another grain across the grain
boundary about an axis through an angle
If the angle of rotation is high, it is called a
high angle grain boundary
If the angle of rotation is low it is called a low
angle grain boundary
Low Angle Grain Boundaries

They are of two types :

Tilt boundary

Twist boundary
Low Angle Grain Boundary: tilt and twist
One grain orientation can be obtained by
rotation of another grain across the grain
boundary about an axis through an angle

If the axis of rotation lies in the boundary plane

it is called tilt boundary

If the angle of rotation is perpendicular to the

boundary plane it is called a twist boundary
Low angle tilt boundary :
Tilt boundary consists of edge dislocation lying
one above theother in the boundary.
bB
C
C B
Grain 1
b 
 sin
2h 2
Grain 2 
 Or 2 2h
approximately

A b
 tan 
h
Low Angle Twist Boundary
Here the angle of rotation is perpendicular
to the boundary plane y

Can be represented by an array of screw

dislocations

The angle of twist is given by:

α=b/h
Low Angle Twist Boundary

These defects affect :

Plastic deformation
Mechanical propertises
Recrystallization Temperature
Electical Propertises
Corrosion Resistance
Twin Boundary

Twin Boundary
Atoms on one side of the
boundary are in mirror
positions with respect to
atoms on the other side
of the boundary
Twin Boundary

The volume of material which has an

orientation similar to the mirror image of the
matrix orientation is called a twin.

The mirror is called the twinning plane or

composition plane.

Twins may form during solidification,

deformation or during annealing.
Twin Boundary
Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane A
Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane C
Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Sequence with Stackin
Perfect Sequence
Fault
Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Intrinsic Fault Extrinsic Fault
Stacking Faults

C A
B C
A B
C Stacking A HCP
B fault B
A A
C C
B FCC B FCC
A A
 Effect of Stacking Faults

A small surface energy is associated with

stacking fault, in the range of 8 to 80
mJ/m2 except in few metals like Nickel
(150 mJ/m2)Aluminium (200 mJ/m2)etc.

The metal with low stacking fault energy

stain harden more rapidly, twin easily on
annealing than the metals with high
stacking fault energy.
 
Which is the most significant defect?
Answer: The line defect (edge dislocation
or screw dislocation)
Which is the second most significant defect?

Photomicrograph an iron
chromium alloy. 100X.
Plastic Deformation
ELASTIC DEFORMATION

F Linear-
elastic

Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-

elastic

PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

linear linear
elastic
Plastic means permanent! elastic

plastic
Single Crystal Slip

Slip in Zinc
single crystal
specimen
after
tensioned
force

Small step of
slip on the
surface
parallel to
one another
 Plastic Deformation by Slip
Plastic deformation by slip occurs by movement or sliding of
one plane of atoms over the other.
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved on slip plane and
along slip direction exceeds a critical value (CRSS). The atoms
move an integral number of atomic distances along the slip
plane and a setp is produced.
 Plastic Deformation by Slip

 Generally the slip plane is

the plane of greatest
atomic density and the slip
direction is the close
packed direction on the
slip lane having maximum
linear atomic density.

 Since the planes of

greatest atomic density are
also the most widely
spaced planes in the
crystal structure, the
resistance to slip is
generally less for these
planes than for any other
set of planes.
Slip System

◦ Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage

Highest planar densities
Wide interplanar spacing

◦ Slip direction - direction of movement

Highest linear densities

◦ Slip Systems:
No of Slip Planes x No of Slip Directions
Slip System in BCC
BCC Slip occurs on {110} planes
(6 Planes)
Close-packed in <111> directions
(2 Directions)
Slip System:{110}<111>

=> total of 12 (6 X2) slip systems

Slip System in BCC (Other Systems)

BCC Slip also occurs on {112} planes

(12 Planes)

Close-packed in <111> directions

(1 Directions)

Slip System:{112}<111>

=> total of 12 (12 X1) slip systems in BCC

Slip System in BCC (Other Systems)

BCC Slip also occurs on {123} planes

(24 Planes)

Close-packed in <111> directions

(1 Directions)

Slip System:{123}<111>

=> total of 24 (24X1) slip systems in BCC

Slip System in FCC
FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes
(4 Planes)
Close-packed in <110> directions
(3 Directions)
Slip System:{111}<110>
=> total of 12 (4 X3) slip systems in FCC
Slip System in HCP
FCC Slip occurs on {0001} planes
(1 Plane)
Close-packed in <1120> directions
(3 Directions)
Slip System:{0001}< 1120 >

=> total of 3 (1 X3) slip systems in HCP

Slip Systems

Structure Slip plane Slip Slip systems

direction

HCP {0001} <1120> 1X3=3

FCC {111} <110> 4X3=12

BCC {110} <111> 6X2=12

{211} <111> 12X1=12

{321} <111> 24X1=24

Resolved Shear Stress
Let tensile force F been applied
Along axis of crystal
Let Φ be angle between
tensile axis And normal to slip plane
Let λ be angle between tensile
axis and Slip direction
Slip plane area=A/cos Φ
Resolve shear force along
Slip direction=Fcos λ
Resolved Shear Stress=σ cos Φ cos λ
Schmid’s Law
Resolved Shear Stress=σ cos Φ cos λ
This is known as Schmid’s law.

Schmid postulated that:

It is the shear stress resolved along the slip direction on
the slip plane that initiates plastic deformation.

 Yield will begin on a slip system when the shear stress on

this system first reaches a critical value (critical resolved
shear stress, CRSS), independent of the tensile stress or any
other normal stress on the lattice plane.
RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS
  

R = 0 R = 0 R = /2
=90° =90° =45°
=45°

 maximum at  =  = 45º
• Maximum possible R = /2; thus y = 2CRSS
Significance of CRSS
 Slip begins within the crystal when the shear
stress on the slip plane in slip direction reaches
and exceeds CRSS.
 All slip systems in crystal do not have same
resolved shear stress because of different along an
axis. As the applied tensile stress is increases from
zero, deformation will be initiated first on that slip
system for which the resolved shear stress is a
maximum and so reaches the CRSS value first.
 CRSS is mainly depends on the type of
bonding, purity, alloying elements present in the
crystal and temperature. It is independent of the
orientation of the applied stress and slip direction.
Significance of CRSS
 The value of CRSS is constant for given
crystal. Essentially, CRSS is the yield stress of
single crystal and is equivalent to the yield
stress of a polycrystalline metal or alloy
determined by a stress – strain tensile test
curve.

 CRSS increases significantly with increase in

impurities or alloying elements.
Resolved Shear Stress
Example 1:Determine the tensile stress that is applied
along the [110] axis of a silver crystal to cause slip on
the (1 1 1)[011] system. CRSS is 6Mpa. (Ans: 14.7Mpa)

Example 2: Calculate the CRSS for Zn single crystal.

Given:
1.The slip plane is oriented at 300 to the tensile
axis.
2.The probable slip directions make angles of
300,450 and 840 with the tensile axis.
3. Slip starts when tensile stress reaches
23kg/mm2.(Ans:1.2kg/mm2)
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 Theoretical CRSS requires to produce plastic

deformation is in the range of
2 – 20 GN/m2 for the most of metals.
 The experimental values of critical resolved
shear stress (CRSS) for initiating plastic
deformation are varies from 2 to 20 MN/m2,
these values are very much lower than ( about
1000 to 10,000 times) theoretical values.
 This discrepancy can be explained only on the
basis of the presence of dislocations in real
crystals.
Dislocations & plastic deformation

Experimental measurements showed that at

room temperature the major source for plastic
deformation is the dislocation motion through the crystal
lattice
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Dislocations & plastic deformation
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 When a shear stress is resolved on the slip

plane in the crystal, dislocation on it move.
 As shown in figure, the dislocation moves across
the slip plane and leaves a step when it comes
out at the surface of the crystal.
 As the dislocations sweep through the crystal,
each one of them causes a displacement of the
top part of the crystal w.r.t. the bottom by a
distance equal to the magnitude of its Burgers
vector.
Dislocations & plastic deformation

 Unlike perfect crystal model of plastic

deformation, plastic deformation does not occur
by the simultaneous displacement of all the atoms
in the slip plane. the dislocation moves in a
sequential fashion, occupying successive position
during its motion as shown.
 During each step of the motion, the displacement
of the atoms surrounding the dislocation is only
fraction of an interatomics distance and not a full
one, as in the case of the perfect crystal. A
relatively small amount of stress is required for
slip by this process since only a small group of a
atoms slips over each other at any instant.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory

Strain Hardening :- Strain hardening means increase

in hardenss and strength during plastic deformation
and more and more stress is required to continue
further plastic deformation.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
When a tensile stress of 6T is applied on
the crystal, it gets resolved on slip plane
and along slip direction. This resolved
shear stress is given by
resolved = 6T cos.cos

where  is angle between tensile axis and

slip direction and Ǿ is angle between tensile
axis and normal to the slip plane.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
When 6T on the crystal is gradually
increased, resolved increases and a stage
comes such that shear stress exceeds CRSS
of that crystal.
Under this situation, slip starts. Slip occurs
by sliding of planes one over the other.
 If the ends of crystal are not constrained,
sliding of planes continue all along the
length.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
However, with the constrained ends, the
slip planes not only slide over the other but
also rotates w.r.t. axis of loading and angle
 i.e. angle between the slip direction and
the tensile axis become less and less during
plastic deformation. This is shown in
second figure.
Rotation of the Crystal Lattice
Rotation of the Crystal Lattice

The slip direction rotates towards the

tensile axis
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Rotation of slip plane Theory
 Ifthe value of  at the beginning is less than 450,
then as  decreases, the value of resolved as
given by 6T cos  cos θ decreases.
 For plastic deformation, 
resolved should be higher
than CRSS. Therefore 6T cos  cos θ must be
increased in such a way that resolved is all the time
higher than CRSS for continuous plastic
deformation.
 This means material becomes more and more
hard and to deform it, higher and higher stress is
required. This phenomenon is know as ‘strain
hardening’.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Approximately as high as 1000 dislocation may lie
on slip plane.
 As the dislocations are moved by applying stress,
their density increases (i.e. they regenerates) if
they come across any obstacle such as impurity
particle, precipitate particle, local stress field in the
lattice, grain boundary etc.)
 In the presence of such obstacles, the dislocation
assumes the positions as shown in fig. with
increasing values of stress.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Obstacle

Dislocation
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Frank-Read source - A pinned dislocation that,
under an applied stress, produces additional
dislocations. This source of regeneration of
dislocation is call
Frank – Reed source of multiplication of
dislocations
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Dislocations entangle
with one another

During plastic deformation

Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

0.9 m

Ti alloy after cold working:

Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Thus by Frank Reed source of
multiplication of dislocation, dislocation
density increase in crystal during plastic
deformation.
 With increased number of dislocations
more stress is required to move them
because of interference of these
dislocations to each other i.e. stress has to
be increased continuously to move the
continuously increasing dislocations.
Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 The shear stress  to move a dislocation in
a crystal with dislocation density ρ is
given by
 = o + A √ρ
where o is the stress required to move a
dislocation in the crystal in the absence of
other dislocations and A is constant. This
equation shows  increase as ρ increases.
This is work hardening or strain
hardening.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Second important plastic deformation mechanism which
can occur in metals is twinning.
 In this process a part of the atomic lattice is deformed so
that it forms a mirror image of the undeformed lattice
next to it.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
The crystallographic plane of symmetry
between the undeformed and deformed
parts of metal lattice is called the twining
plane.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Twining occurs in specific direction and on
certain planes.
Structure Typical Twin plane Twin direction
examples

BCC  - Fe, Ta (112) [111]

FCC Ag, Au, Cu (111) [112]

HCP Zn, Cd, Mg, (10 12 ) [1011]

Ti
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Unlike slip, in twining the atoms move
distances proportional to their distance from
the twining plane.

 Twining only involves a small fraction of the

total volume of the metal crystal and so the
amount of overall deformation that can be
produced by twining is small.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Two Types of Twinning:
Mechanical twins
Annealing twins

 Mechanical twins are produced in BCC or HCP

metals under conditions of rapid rate of loading
(shock loading) and low temperature.

 Annealing Twins are observed in FCC metals

Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Twining is not a dominant deformation
mechanism in metals which posses many
possible slip systems.

Twining generally occurs when the slip

systems are restricted or when twining
stress is lower than the stress for slip.
Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 The important role of twining in plastic deformation
comes not from the strain produced by the twining
process but from the fact that orientation changes
resulting from twining may place new slip systems
in a favourable orientation w.r.t. the stress axis so
that additional slip can take place.

 Thus twining is important in the overall

deformation of metals with a low number of slip
systems, such as the HCP metals.
 Slip Vs Twinning
Slip Twinning

1 Slip is shear deformation In twinning, a part of the atomic

process that moves atoms on lattice is deformed so that it
one plane (slip plane) relative to form a mirror image of the
their initial positions by many underformed lattice next to it.
interatomic distances in
particular direction (slip
direction)
 Slip Twinning

2
In slip, atoms move a whole In twinning, the atoms move
number of interatomic spacing. fractional amounts depending
on their distance from the
twinning plane.
3
In slip, there is very little change In twinning, there is complete
in lattice orientation. change in orientation of
deformed lattice w.r.t.
undeformed lattice.
4 Stress required to start slip is Stress required to start
lower. twinning is higher.
 Slip Twinning

5 Stress required to propagate slip Stress required to propagate

is higher because of the twinning is lower.
interaction of moving
dislocations with obstacles.
6 Under microscope slip appears Under microscope twinning
as thin lines. appear as broad lines or bands.

7 Slip is a dominant mechanism for Twinning is not dominant

plastic deformation. mechanism for plastic
deformation but indirectly it
assists the slip by creating new
slip systems favorable for
plastic deformation.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

The boundaries between the grain in a

polycrystalline metals are a region of disturbed
lattice of few atomic diameters width.

The crystallographic orientation changes

abruptly in passing from one grain to the next
across the grain boundary.

Grain boundaries provide obstacles to

dislocation motion. Hence, dislocations are
stopped by a grain boundary and pile up against it.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals
• Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip. slip plane
B
ain
gr
grain A

gra
• Hall-Petch Equation:

in
b
o un
k

dar
y
 yield  o 
d
 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals

• Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
crystal to another.

• R will vary from one

crystal to another.

• The crystal with the

largest R yields first.

• Other (less favorably

300 m
oriented) crystals
yield (slip) later.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals
Since contact at the grain boundaries must be maintain, the
grains gets sheared relative to each other during plastic
deformations.
This creates more slip system to operate.
The rotation into the axis of tension brings other grains,
originally less favorably oriented, into a position where they
can now deform.
As deformation and rotation proceed , the individual grains
tend to elongate the direction of deformation
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals
In the presence of grain boundary. Dislocation
movement along the slip planes and elongation of the
grains make plastic deformation more and more
difficult.

Piled dislocations increase further resistance

to plastic deformation.

Thus grain boundaries increases strength and

hardness of polycrystalline material by plastic
deformation.
Cold Working
Cold Working is defined as the working of metal
and alloys below their recrystallization temperature

Common forming operations change the cross

sectional area:
-Rolling
roll
Ad
Ao
roll

Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao
Impact of Cold Working
Dislocations During Cold Work
• Dislocations entangle with one
another during cold work.
• Dislocation motion becomes more
difficult.
• Dislocation density increases
dramatically with cold work.
 Carefully prepared sample:
103 dislocations mm/mm3
 Heavily deformed sample:
1010 dislocations mm/mm3

0.9 m
Impact of Cold Working
Cold Working is Actually Strain Hardening
Basic equation relating flow stress (strain hardening) to
structure is:
o = i +Gb1/2

o is the yield stress

i is the “friction stress” – overall resistance of
lattice to dislocation motion
 is numerical constant 0.3 – 0.6
G shear modulus
b is the burger’s vector
is the dislocation density
Impact of Cold Working
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Impact of Cold Working
Impact on Mechanical Properties

Stress

%
co l
dw
or k
Strain

• Yield strength (y) increases.

• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Impact of Cold Working
Impact on Microstructure
 During cold working, all grains get
deformed, distorted and elongated in the
direction of cold working.
 Grain size slightly decreases.
Before Cold Working
After Cold Working

235 m

rolling direction
Impact of Cold Working
Other Effects of Cold Working
An appreciable decrease in electrical conductivity
(increased number of scattering centers)
Small increase in the thermal coefficient of
expansion
Because of increased internal energy – chemical
reactivity is increased (decreased resistance to
corrosion)
Annealing
Definition:
Annealing is heating to an elevated temperature for
an extended time period and then slowly cooling
Steps for all anneals:

Temp
1.Heating
2.Holding or “soaking”
3.Cooling
Time is important for all 3 steps
Time
Annealing
Purposes of annealing:
Relieve stresses
Soften; increase ductility
Produce a specific microstructure
Annealing
Driving force:
The cold worked state is thermodynamically
unstable.
With increasing temperature it becomes
more and more unstable
Eventually the metal softens and returns to a
strain-free condition
 Annealing
Energy required to overcome rigidity of the
Driving force: distorted lattice

Energy supplied
by Heat

Internal Energy
due to deformation Energy of strain free crystal
 Annealing
Driving force:
Strain Energy Related to Cold Work
 ~10% of the energy imparted
during cold working is stored as
strain energy
 Amount of strain energy is
increased by increasing the
severity of deformation,
lowering the deformation
temperature, and by impurity
additions
Figure: Stored energy of cold work and  The strain energy increase is
fraction of the total work of deformation stored in the highly deformed
remaining as stored energy for high purity microstructure – dislocation
copper
tangles
Annealing
Annealing Stages
Annealing is easily divided into 3 distinct
processes:

1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain Growth
Recovery
Defined as: Restoration of physical properties of a cold worked metal
without any observable change in microstructure

Driving force for recovery is the release of stored strain energy

Involves:
Dislocation Annihilation
Polygonization:

Removal of grain curvature created during deformation

Regrouping of edge dislocations into low angle boundaries within grains
Reduces the energy of system by creating reduced energy subgrains
Recovery
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Case 1: extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Case 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
Recovery

Polygonization
Recovery

Polygonization
Recovery
Effects:

Annihilation reduces dislocation density.

Lattice strain is reduced
Relieve residual stresses
Electrical conductivity increases
Corrosion resistance increases
Strength properties are not affected
Recrystallization
Recrystallization is:
The replacement of the cold worked structure
by the nucleation and growth of a new set of
strain free grains

Driving force for recrystallization is the release

of stored strain energy
Recrystallization
How does it work?
Nucleation of strain free grains occurs at points
of high lattice curvature
 Slip line intersections
 Deformation twin intersections
 Areas close to grain boundaries
Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
 have a small dislocation density
 are small
 consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
Variables for Recrystallization
Six main variables influence recrystallization behavior:

The amount of prior deformation

Temperature
Time
Initial grain size
Composition
Amount of recovery or polygonization
prior to the start of recrystallization
Variables for Recrystallization

 The amount of prior deformation

Minimum amount of deformation is
required
The smaller the deformation, the
higher the temperature required for
recrystallization
Variables for Recrystallization
The amount of prior deformation

Recrystallization Temp as a function of CW

 Variables for Recrystallization
Temperature
Time
 Increasing annealing time decreases
required recrystallization temperature.
 Temperature is more important than
time.
 Doubling annealing time is
approximately equivalent to increasing
annealing temperature 10oC
Recrystallization Temperature

Because the temperature at which

recrystallization occurs depends on above factors
Recrystallization temperature is not a fixed
temperature like melting point.
The practical definition for recrystallization
temperature is:
The temperature at which a given alloy in a highly
cold worked state completely recrystallizes in 1
hour.
Recrystallization Temperature

Most metals have a recrystallization

temperature equal to about 40% to 60% of
the melting point

Tr  0.5Tm



K 


 
 
 
Variables for Recrystallization
Initial grain size

 The larger the original grain size, the

greater the amount of cold work required to
produce same recrystallization temp.

 Smaller initial grain size will

recrystallize easier – at less
temperature and time
Variables for Recrystallization

Composition
The recrystallization temperature decreases
with increasing purity of the metal.
Solid solution alloying additions always
raise the recrystallization temperature
Solute atoms inhibit dislocations motion,
higher temperature is needed
Insoluble impurities (oxides and gases)
become nucleation sites and refine grains
Variables for Recrystallization

Final grain size depends:

 mainly on the degree of deformation
 annealing temperature.

The greater the deformation & the lower

the annealing temp., the smaller the
recrystallized grain size.
Recrystallization

Effects:
Density of dislocations is reduced

Strain hardening is eliminated

The hardness and strength is reduced

and the ductility is increased

Grain Growth
Grain growth refers to the increase in the
average grain size on further heating in
annealing after all the cold worked material has
recrystallized

Driving force :-The driving force for grain

growth is the decrease in free energy resulting
from a decreased grain boundary area due to
an increase in grain size.
Grain growth is also known as secondary
recrystallization
GRAIN GROWTH

After 8 s, 580C After 15 min, 580C

GRAIN GROWTH

Size of grains vs. temperature

G
R
A
I
N

S
I
Z
E
200 400 600
Temperature, deg.C
GRAIN GROWTH
 At temperature above that of recrystallization as shown
in figure, a grain move towards its centre of curvature in
order to shorten its length.
 It is easy to see from figure that the boundary must
move towards its centre of curvature for the atoms to
go into a position of greater binding.
 To facilitate this, atoms move across the boundary to
the position of greater binding i.e. more stability where
they will be surrounded by more neighbors in the
concave grain face of the growing crystal.
 Thus the large grow larger and the small grow smaller.
This results in a tendency for longer grains to grow at
the expense of smaller grains
GRAIN GROWTH

Grain Boundary Growth by Atomic Diffusion

GRAIN GROWTH

Small grains with sides less than 6 => concave inward

=> shrink small grains with sides larger than 6 =>
concave outward => grow

Thus the large grow larger and the small grow smaller.
This results in a tendency for longer grains to grain
at the expense of smaller grains

120o

Shrink Stable grow

GRAIN GROWTH

The extent of grain growth is dependent to a

large degree on the following factors :

The annealing temperature

Annealing time

Degree of previous cold work

Presence of insoluble impurity atoms

GRAIN GROWTH

Grain-Growth is not recommended mainly because:

 Energy consumption
 Excessive grain growth is not
desirable because it decreases the useful
properties.
 However, one of the useful
application of this is in the growth of
single crystal.
Mechanical Properties and
Microstructural Variation
During Annealing
 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

º
 Microscope images :  

Cold rolled steel recrystallized after Grain growth after

90% reduction 2 min.at 830°C 2min @ 930°C.
 Stages of Annealing

Starting Cold worked Dislocation

material annihilation

Recrystallisation Grain growth

Recovery, Recrystallisation and Growth of Brass

CW 33% 3s at 580C 4s at 580C

8s at 580C GG 15Min 10 Min at 700C

at 580C
Hot Working
Hot working is defined as deforming the
material at a temperature above the
recrystallization temperature

Hot Working ≡
Cold Working+ Annealing
Hot Working
Shape the metal while it is hot.

Can not fine tune the final properties

this way

Dimensional control is hard

Surface finishes may be hard to produce

Cold Working Vs Hot Working
Cold Working Hot Working

Working of metals and Working of metals and

alloys below their alloys above their
recrystallisation temp. recrystallisation temp.

Deformation under Deformation under condition of

temperature ands strain rate such
condition where recovery that recovering and
and recrystallisation are recrystallisation take place
simultaneous i.e. Hot working =
not effective.
cold working + Annealing
Cold Working Hot Working

Strain hardening and No strain hardening stress

distorted grains are – strain free equiaxed
produced. grains are produced.

Very large deformations Very large deformations

are not possible because are possible
of strain hardening

Energy and stress require Energy and stress require

for cold working is high. for hot working is low.
Cold Working Hot Working
Retains chemical Reduces chemical
heterogeneity if present. hetrodensity because of
faster diffusion at high
temp.
No oxidation of metals Heavy oxidation occurs
during working and hence and hence pickling is
pickling is not required. compulsory
Surface decarburization in Surface decarburization in
steel does not occurs occurs because of high
temp
Defect density increases. No change in defect
densities.
Cold Working Hot Working
Surface finish is good. Surface finish is not good
because of surface
oxidation

It is easy to control the It is difficult to control the

dimensions within the dimensions because of
tolerance limit. non- uniform heating
Handling of materials is Handling of materials is
easy. difficult

Cost of cold working Cost of hot working plant

plant is low if high.