CHAPTE

1
Problem Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

1
Section 1.1 Problem-Solving Strategies

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

2
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

3
Polya: “The Father of Problem Solving”

George Pólya was a Hungarian

mathematician.
He made fundamental contributions
to combinatorics, number theory,
numerical analysis and probability
theory. He is also noted for his
work in heuristics and
mathematics education.

4
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a
study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985).
He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.

The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated

consisted of the following four steps.

5
 1. Understand the problem
Can you restate the problem in your own words?
Can you determine what is known about these types of
problems?
Is there a missing information that, if known, would allow
you to solve the problem?
Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve
the problem?

6
•
2. Devise a plan
Make a list of the known information
• Make a list of information that is needed
• Draw diagram
• Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
• Make a table or a chart
• Work backwards
• Try to solve a similar but simpler problem
• Look for a pattern
• Write an equation. If necessary, define what each
variable represents.
• Perform an experiment
• Guess at a solution and then check your result 7
•
3. Carry
Work carefully
out the plan
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts
• Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and
that you may have to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan

8
•
4. Review the solution
Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the
problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the problem
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the
solution that could apply to other problems.

9
Example 1.
During a family gathering last Christmas, Angel was able to
collect 12 monetary bills consisting of P20 bills and P50
bills from her Titas and Titos. She received a total of
P390 from them. How many from each bill did Angel
receive?

10
1. Understand the problem
Distribute the 12 bills into two portions

11
2. Devise a plan
Perform trial and error. (11 – ways)
11 + 1; 11(20) +1(50) = 270 pesos; reverse: 11(50) + 1(20)
= 570 pesos
10 + 2; 10(20) +2(50) = 300 pesos; reverse: 10(50) + 2(20)
= 540 pesos
9 + 3…

12
3. Carry out the plan

Number of P20 bills Number of P50 bills Total amount

11 1 11(20) + 1(50) = 270

10 2 10(20) + 2(50) = 300

9 3 9(20) + 3(50) = 330

8 4 8(20) + 4(50) = 360

7 5 7(20) + 5(50) = 390

13
4. Look back
Number of P20 bills
11
Number of P50 bills
1
Total amount
11(20) + 1(50) = 270
10 2 10(20) + 2(50) = 300
9 3 9(20) + 3(50) = 330
8 4 8(20) + 4(50) = 360
7 5 7(20) + 5(50) = 390
6 6 420
5 7 450
4 8 480
3 9 510
2 10 540
1 11 570

The answer is reasonable as it generates the desired amount of

P390. To check if this is the only solution, complete the table.

14
Apply Algebraic process

15
Example 2.

Pet is planning to put up a rectangular garden with a fixed area of

120 sq. meter. If the dimensions of the garden have to be
whole numbers, determine the dimensions that will require the
least amount of fencing materials to enclose the garden.

Length

Width

16
Solution:
1. Understand the problem

Area = length x width = 120

Perimeter = 2 length + 2 width = 2 (length + width)

Note: you can specify that the length is longer than the
width

17
Let: L = 120; W = 1 Area = 120 sq. m; P = 242 m
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
Length Width Area Perimeter
4. Look
120 1 120 242
60 2 120 124 back
40 3 120 86 The dimension
40 4 120 68 of the garden is
24 5 120 58 12 meters by
20 6 120 52 10 meters with
15 8 120 46 a perimeter of
12 10 120 44 44 meters.
10 12 120 44

18
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
In Example 3 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving
strategy to solve a problem involving the number of routes
between two points.

19
Example 3 – Apply Polya’s Strategy
Consider the map shown in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to
walk along the streets from point A to point B. How many
direct routes can Allison take?

City Map
Figure 1.2

20
Example 3 – Solution
Understand the Problem: We would not be able to
answer the question if Allison retraced her path or traveled
away from point B.

Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always travels

along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B.

21
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Devise a Plan: The map in

Figure 1.2 has many extraneous
details.

City Map
Figure 1.2

Thus we make a diagram that

allows us to concentrate on the
essential information. See the
figure at the right. A simple diagram of the
street map in Figure 1.2
22
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but

simpler diagrams shown below.

Simple street diagrams

The number at each street intersection represents the

number of routes from point A to that particular intersection.
23
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to

an intersection is the sum of the number of routes to the
adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above.

For instance, the number of routes to the intersection

labeled 6 is the sum of the number of routes to the
intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of routes
to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.

24
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered earlier in

the example, we see from the figure below that the number
of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.

A street diagram with the number

of
routes to each intersection labeled

25
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a result of 35

seems reasonable.

If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a

scheme that would enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?

26
Reading and Interpreting Graphs

27
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Graphs are often used to display numerical information in a
visual format that allows the reader to see pertinent
relationships and trends quickly.

Three of the most common types of graphs are the bar

graph, the broken-line graph, and the circle graph.

28
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.3 is a bar graph that displays the average U.S.
movie theatre ticket prices for the years from 2008 to 2014.
The years are displayed on the horizontal axis. Each
vertical bar is used to display the average ticket price for a
given year. The higher the bar, the greater the average
ticket price for that year.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3
29
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.4 shows two broken-line graphs. The red broken-
line graph displays the median age at first marriage for men
for the years from 2005 to 2013.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

The green broken-line graph displays the median age at first

marriage for women during the same time period. The
symbol on the vertical axis indicates that the ages between
0 and 25 are not displayed. 30
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
This break in the vertical axis allows the graph to be
displayed in a compact form.

The segments that connect points on the graph indicate

trends. Increasing trends are indicated by segments that
rise as they move to the right, and decreasing trends are
indicated by segments that fall as they move to the right.

The blue arrows in Figure 1.4 show that the median age at
which men married for the first time in 2006 was 27.5 years,
rounded to the nearest half of a year.

31
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.5 is a circle graph or pie chart that uses circular
sectors to display the percentage of the 180,000,000 U.S.
Facebook users in selected age groups as of January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
32
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems

a. Use Figure 1.3 to determine the minimum average U.S.

movie theatre ticket price for the years from 2008 to
2014.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3
33
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problemscont’d

b. Use Figure 1.4 to estimate the median age at which

women married for the first time in 2011. Round to the
nearest half of a year.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

34
Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problemscont’d

c. Use Figure 1.5 to estimate the number of U.S. Facebook

users in the 18–24 age group. Round to the nearest
hundred thousand.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
35
Example 8(a) – Solution
The minimum of the average ticket prices is displayed by
the height of the shortest vertical bar in Figure 1.3.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3

Thus the minimum average U.S. movie theatre ticket price

for the years from 2008 to 2014 was $7.18. 36
Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d

To estimate the median age at which women married for

the first time in 2011, locate 2011 on the horizontal axis of
Figure 1.4 and then move directly upward to a point on the
green broken-line graph.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

37
Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d

The height of this point represents the median age at first

marriage for women in 2011, and it can be estimated by
moving horizontally to the vertical axis on the left.

Thus the median age at first marriage for women in 2011

was 26.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of a year.

38
Example 8(c) – Solution cont’d

Figure 1.5 indicates that 23.3% of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users were in the 18–24 age group.

0.233  180,000,000 = 41,940,000

Thus, rounded to the nearest

hundred thousand, the number of
U.S. Facebook users in this age
group was 41,900,000 in
January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
39
Section 1.1 Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

41
Inductive Reasoning

42
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next

number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
43
Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each

of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.

44
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the

third numbers differ by 3.

It appears that the difference between any two numbers

is always 1 more than the preceding difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next

number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

45
Deductive Reasoning

46
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive

reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

47
Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add

6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

48
Example 5 – Solution
Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8:

Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given

in this example produces a number that is four times the
original number.

49
Section 2. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

50
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

51
Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In the next Example we will analyze arguments to determine

whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning.

52
Example 6 – Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums

every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate.

The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost
more than $35,000.

53
Example 6 – Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific
examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general

assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.

54
Logic Puzzles

55
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved
by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.

56
Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.

2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.

3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

4. The banker lives next door to Brian. 57

Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by

clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.

58
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this

condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
59
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the

other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these
conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3

twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
60
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef,
and Brian is the dentist. 61
Seatwork with partner
1) The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is
4590.None of the teens are of the same age. What are
their ages?
2) A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs
$90 more than the hat. What are the cost of the hat and
the cost of the jacket?
3) During a family gathering last Christmas, Angel was able
to collect 12 monetary bills consisting of P20 bills and
P50 bills from her Titas and Titos. She received a total
of P390 from them. How many from each bill did Angel
receive?

62
Section 1.2 Problem Solving with
Patterns

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

63
Terms of a Sequence

64
Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.

In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second

term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is
the fifth term.

The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues

beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence.
65
Terms of a Sequence
We often construct a difference table, which shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence.
The following table is a difference table for the sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference

between the two closest numbers just above it (upper right
number minus upper left number). The differences in row
(1) are called the first differences of the sequence.
66
Terms of a Sequence
In this case, the first differences are all the same.

Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the

next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is
the next term of the sequence.

This prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern

shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.

67
Terms of a Sequence
The following table is a difference table for the sequence
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In
such a situation it is often helpful to compute the successive
differences of the first differences. These are shown in row
(2).
68
Terms of a Sequence
These differences of the first differences are called the
second differences.

The differences of the second differences are called the

third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a

pattern in a row of differences.

69
Example 1 – Predict the Next Term of a Sequence

Use a difference table to predict the next term in the

sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...

Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.

70
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The third differences, shown in blue in row (3), are all the
same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so that it includes an
additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second
difference will be 36.

Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives us the next first

difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields
332.

Using the method of extending the difference table, we

predict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

71
Seatwork:
Construct a difference table to predict the
next term of each sequence

1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71 …

2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30 …
3. -1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204 …
4. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190…
5. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84…

72
Answers:
1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71 … 97
2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30 …40
3. -1, 4, 21, 56 115, 204 … 329
4. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190…
5. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84…159

73
nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

74
75
Seatwork 2

76
Problem Set: Logic Puzzle:
1. Each of the Little League teams in a small rural community is
sponsored by a different local business. The names of the teams
are: Dodgers, Pirates, Tigers and Giants. The businesses that
sponsor the teams are: bank, supermarket, service station and the
drugstore. The following clues determine which business sponsors
each team.
a. The tigers and the team sponsored by the service station have
winning records this season.
b. The pirates and the team sponsored by the bank are coached by
parents of the players, whereas the giants and the team sponsored
by the drugstore are coached by the director of the community
center.
c. Jake is the pitcher for the team sponsored by the supermarket and
coached by his father.
d. The game between the tigers and the team sponsored by the
drugstore was rained out yesterday. 77
Clue no. 1: The tigers and the team sponsored by the service station
have winning records this season.

Bank Supermarket Service Drugstore

Station

Dodgers

Pirates

Tigers x1

Giants

78
Clue no. 2
The pirates and the team sponsored by the bank are coached by parents
of the players, whereas the giants and the team sponsored by the
drugstore are coached by the director of the community center.

Bank Supermarket Service Drugstore

Station

Dodgers

Pirates x2

Tigers x1

Giants x2

79
Clue no. 3
Jake is the pitcher for the team sponsored by the supermarket
and coached by his father.

Bank Supermarket Service Drugstore

Station

Dodgers x3 x3

Pirates x2 √ x3 x3

Tigers x3 x1

Giants x3 x3 √ x2

80
Clue no. 4
The game between the tigers and the team sponsored by the drugstore
was rained out yesterday.

Bank Supermarket Service Drugstore

Station

Dodgers x4 x3 x4 √

Pirates x2 √ x3 x3

Tigers √ x3 x1 x4

Giants x4 x3 √ x2

81
Therefore:
The Dodgers are sponsored by the Drugstore
The Pirates are sponsored by the Supermarket
The Tigers are sponsored by the Bank
The Giants are sponsored by the Service Station.

82
Number of Routes from A to B.
  1 1 1
     
2 3 4
   
   
1 2
4  
7

18
1 3   7
14
83