Engineering Physics

L-1
(Electromagnetic Theory)

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY QUANTUM MECHANICS

LASER WAVES

Dr. Vishal Thakur

SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Lovely Professional University
Phagwara, Punjab-144411
FIBRE OPTICS
EMT-Topics

1. Scalar and Vector fields.

2. Concepts of gradient, divergence and curl.
3. Gauss Theorem and Stokes theorem.
4. Poisson and Laplace’s Equation.
5. Continuity equation.
6. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic equation.
7. Physical significance of Maxwell’s equation.
8. Ampere’s Circuital law.
9. Maxwell displacement current and correction in Amperes law.
Scalars and Vectors
Scalars and Vectors
In Which Direction ?

What is the temperature? What is the Distance covered?

What is the speed ?

How much energy does he spend?

What is the velocity ?

What is his height?

Is there any force on him ?

What is his weight?

What is his mass? How is it that he is on the ground ?

Scalars and Vectors
Scalars Vectors Vectors
Mass (Kg) Force • Vectors have both magnitude and direction.
Temperature (K) Velocity • Ways of writing vector notation
Current (A) Displacement
Speed (m/s) Fields (Electric and Magnetic)
F  ma
 
Time (s) Acceleration F  ma
Amount of Substance (mol) Current density (J=I/A) F  ma
Luminous Intensity (cd) Length
Energy… Momentum…

Polar Vectors: The vectors associated with the linear directional effect are called the polar vectors. Examples are force,
linear momentum, linear velocity, etc.

Axial Vectors: The vectors associated with the rotation about an axis are called the axial vectors. Examples are totque,
angular velocity, angular momentum etc.
Vector Math
  Triangular law of vector addition:
• Vector Inverse A A If two vectors acting simultaneously on a body
• Just switch direction are represented both in magnitude and
  direction by two sides of a triangle taken in an
A B
   order then the resultant (both magnitude and
• Vector Addition A B A direction) of these vectors is given by third side
• Use head-tail method, or  of that triangle taken in opposite order.
parallelogram method   B
A B  
A B

A  
• Vector Subtraction A B
• Use inverse, then add  
 A B Parallelogram law of vector addition:
B If two vectors are considered to be the adjacent
• Vector Multiplication sides of a Parallelogram, then the resultant of
• Two kinds! two vectors is given by the vector which is a
• Scalar, or dot product diagonal passing through the point of contact of
• Vector, or cross product two vectors.
 +⃗𝐵
⃗
A ⃗𝑅 = 𝐴
• Vector Addition by Components
 
A  B  ( Ax  Bx )iˆ  ( Ay  B y ) ˆj  ( Az  Bz )kˆ 𝜃 
B
Vector Math

The magnitude of the resultant is given by B P
 
A ⃗
𝑅 A 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑅=√ 𝐴2+𝐵 2+2 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜃 𝛽 𝜃 Q
O
B 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
The angle between the resultant and the horizontal vector
Can be obtained by extending the horizontal vector as shown in
The figure.
Thus, for the triangle OQP,

𝛽=tan −1 ( 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝐵+ 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 )
Representation of a vector, Unit Vector and Rectangular Resolution of vectors
y
 A vector may be represented as
B
  P
ry r
Here, is the vector, is the magnitude of the vector
and is the unit vector. q 
O rx A x
 Thus, r gives the magnitude and gives the direction of the
vector.
We may then write . From the right angled triangle OAP we may write
 Unit vectors have unit magnitude but a definite direction. the magnitude of the given vector,

 Let OX and OY be the two rectangular axes. Let and

are the two unit vectors along x and y respectively.
 If and the coordinates of P be (x,y), then,
and .
 Again by the law of vector addition (For convenience bold face
From the same triangle OAP
will be considered as vector notation)

Or,
This is known as rectangular resolution of vectors.
Test

Q. If a vector in 3D is given as

What will be the unit vector?

Ans.
Product of two Vectors: Dot Product
Scalar Product or Dot product
 
Q. How do we show that A  B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
• The dot product says something

about how parallel two vectors Let, A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ
are. 
B  Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ
• The dot product (scalar product) of
two vectors can be thought of as
the projection of one onto the The dot product of perpendicular unit vector is zero.
direction of the other.  The dot product of parallel unit vector is unity.
  B  
A  B  AB cos  A  B  Ax iˆ  Bx iˆ  Ay ˆj  B y ˆj  Az kˆ  Bz kˆ

A  iˆ  A cos   Ax ( 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) 𝐵  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz

q A
• In the component form
 
𝐴(𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz

**Scalar product of two vectors is a scalar.

Product of two Vectors: Vector Product
Vector Product or Cross product  Recall angular momentum z
  
Lrp
• The cross product of two vectors
says something about how
 Torque
  
perpendicular they are. You will   r F
find it in the context of rotation, or **Vector product of two vectors is a vector
twist. y
 
A  B  AB sin 
Cross of unit vectors x
• Direction perpendicular to both A ⃗
𝐴× ⃗
𝐵
and B (right-hand rule)
   
A  B  B  A
⃗
𝐵
iˆ ˆj kˆ
  ˆ ˆ ˆ
A  B  Ax Ay Az  ( Ay Bz  Az B y )i  ( Az Bx  Ax Bz ) j  ( Ax B y  Ay Bx )k 𝜃
Bx By Bz
⃗
𝐴
Differentiation of Vectors
𝑑 𝑑𝑩 𝑑 𝑨
( 𝑨× 𝑩 ) = 𝑨× + ×𝑩
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑪
𝑑𝑠
=0 ^ 𝐹 ^𝑗 + 𝐹 𝑘
𝑭 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑖+ ^
𝑦 𝑧
𝑑 𝑑𝑨
( 𝑎 𝑨 )=𝑎
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑 𝑑𝑽 𝑑𝑈
( 𝑈 𝑽 ) =𝑈 +𝑽
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

Differential operator:

(nabla) is designated as the differential vector operator and is given by,

GRADIENT (), DIVERGENCE() AND CURL()
 GRADIENT (), DIVERGENCE() AND CURL()
A continuous function of position of a point in a region is called a
point function. The region of space in which It specifies a physical
quantity is known as a field. These fields are classified into two
groups:

Scalar Field: It is defined as that region of space where each point

is associated with a scalar point function. That is a continuous
function which gives the value of a physical quantity such as,
temperature, potential etc. In a scalar field, all the points having
the same scalar physical quantity are connected by the means of Temperature field or a scalar field
surfaces called equal or the level surfaces.

Vector Field: A vector field is specified by a continuous vector

point function having magnitude and direction and both of which
may change from point to point in a given region of field. The field
is represented by vector lines or lines of surfaces. The tangent at a
vector line gives the direction of the vector at that point.

Magnetic field of bar magnet Earth’s magnetic field

Gradient ()

𝜕𝜙 ^ 𝜕𝜙 ^ 𝜕𝜙 ^ dr
𝛁 𝝓= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 r P(x,y,z)

Physical Meaning: The gradient points in the direction of

maximum increase of . || gives the slope (rate of increase)
along this maximal direction. Gradient can be used to find the
directional derivative.
Gradient ()

d 𝜙=𝜵 𝝓 . 𝒅𝒓 =|𝛻 𝜙||𝑑𝑟|cos ⁡(𝜃)

 From the above equation it is evident that if we fix ‘dr’ and vary the then
maximum change in the function can happen only if i.e. if we move in the same
direction as the direction of the gradient.

 Imagine you are standing on a hillside. Look all around you, and find the direction
of steepest ascent. That is the direction of the gradient. The function however
this time is the height.
Gradient ()
What would it mean for the gradient to vanish?

If = 0 at (x, y, z) then = 0 for small displacements about the point (x, y, z).

This is, then, a stationary point of the function (x, y, z). It could be a maximum (a summit), a minimum (a
valley), a saddle point (a pass).
This is analogous to the situation for
functions of one variable, where a
vanishing derivative signals a maximum, a
minimum, or an inflection. In particular, if
you want to locate the extrema of a
function of three variables, set its gradient
equal to zero.
Gradient (): Checkpoint

Q1. Find the directional derivative of the function at the point (1,2,-1).

Q2. Find the directional derivative of the function at the point (1,2,-1) in the
direction .

⃗
𝛻𝜙
𝜃 n of
irecti o
in the d
Gradient (): Checkpoint
Divergence ()
• The name divergence is well chosen, for is a
measure of how much the vector v spreads
out (diverges) from the point in question.

• For example, the vector function in Fig. a has

a large (positive) divergence (if the arrows
pointed in, it would be a negative divergence).
Observe that the divergence of a vector function v is itself is a scalar.
• The function in Figure (b) has zero
divergence.

• The function in Fig. c again has a positive

divergence.

• (Please understand that v here is a function—

there's a different vector associated with
every point in space. In the diagrams, of
course, we can only draw the arrows at a few
representative locations.)
Curl ()
Curl ()
• The name curl is also well chosen,
for is a measure of how much the
vector v swirls around the point in
question.

• The functions in Figures have a

substantial curl, pointing in the z
direction, as the natural right-hand
rule would suggest.

• Imagine (again) you are standing at

the edge of a pond. Float a small
paddlewheel (a cork with toothpicks
pointing out radially would do); if it
starts to rotate, then you placed it
at a point of nonzero curl. A
whirlpool would be a region of large
curl.
Important to Note

• If the divergence of a vector field is zero, we call that to be SOLENOIDAL or INCOMRESSIBLE.

• If the curl of a vector field is zero then it is called IRROTATIONAL and CONSERVATIVE.

Prove?
 Divergence of Curl is Zero

 Curl of a Gradient is zero