Intermediate Code Generation
Outline
Variants of Syntax Trees
Three-address code
Types and declarations
Translation of expressions
Type checking
Control flow
Backpatching
Introduction
Intermediate code is the interface between front end and
back end in a compiler
Ideally the details of source language are confined to the
front end and the details of target machines to the back
end (a m*n model)
In this chapter we study intermediate representations,
static type checking and intermediate code generation
Static Intermediate Code
Parser
Checker Code Generator Generator
Front end Back end
Variants of syntax trees
It is sometimes beneficial to crate a DAG instead of
tree for Expressions.
This way we can easily show the common sub-
expressions and then use that knowledge during code
generation
Example: a+a*(b-c)+(b-c)*d
+ *
*
d
a -
b c
SDD for creating DAG’s
Production Semantic Rules
1) E -> E1+T E.node= new Node(‘+’, E1.node,T.node)
2) E -> E1-T E.node= new Node(‘-’, E1.node,T.node)
3) E -> T E.node = T.node
4) T -> (E) T.node = E.node
5) T -> id T.node = new Leaf(id, id.entry)
6) T -> num T.node = new Leaf(num, num.val)
Example:
1)p1=Leaf(id, entry-a) 8) p8=Leaf(id,entry-b)=p3
2)P2=Leaf(id, entry-a)=p1 9) p9=Leaf(id,entry-c)=p4
3)p3=Leaf(id, entry-b) 10) p10=Node(‘-’,p3,p4)=p5
4)p4=Leaf(id, entry-c) 11) p11=Leaf(id,entry-d)
5)p5=Node(‘-’,p3,p4) 12) p12=Node(‘*’,p5,p11)
6)p6=Node(‘*’,p1,p5) 13) p13=Node(‘+’,p7,p12)
7)p7=Node(‘+’,p1,p6)
Value-number method for
constructing DAG’s
= id To entry for i
num 10
+ + 1 2
3 1 3
i 10
Algorithm
Search the array for a node M with label op, left child l and
right child r
If there is such a node, return the value number M
If not create in the array a new node N with label op, left
child l, and right child r and return its value
We may use a hash table
Three address code
In a three address code there is at most one operator
at the right side of an instruction
Example:
+
t1 = b – c
+ * t2 = a * t1
t3 = a + t2
* t4 = t1 * d
d
t5 = t3 + t4
a -
b c
Forms of three address
instructions
x = y op z
x = op y
x = y
goto L
if x goto L and ifFalse x goto L
if x relop y goto L
Procedure calls using:
param x
call p,n
y = call p,n
x = y[i] and x[i] = y
x = &y and x = *y and *x =y
Example
do i = i+1; while (a[i] < v);
L: t1 = i + 1 100: t1 = i + 1
i = t1 101: i = t1
t2 = i * 8 102: t2 = i * 8
t3 = a[t2] 103: t3 = a[t2]
if t3 < v goto L 104: if t3 < v goto 100
Symbolic labels Position numbers
Data structures for three
address codes
Quadruples
Has four fields: op, arg1, arg2 and result
Triples
Temporaries are not used and instead references to
instructions are made
Indirect triples
In addition to triples we use a list of pointers to triples
Three address code
Example t1 = minus c
t2 = b * t1
b * minus c + b * minus c t3 = minus c
t4 = b * t3
t5 = t2 + t4
a = t5
Quadruples Triples Indirect Triples
op arg1 arg2 result op arg1 arg2 op op arg1 arg2
minus c t1 0 minus c 35 (0) 0 minus c
* b t1 t2 1 * b (0) 36 (1) 1 * b (0)
minus c t3 2 minus c 37 (2) 2 minus c
* b t3 t4 3 * b (2) b (2)
38 (3) 3 *
+ t2 t4 t5 4 + (1) (3) 39 (4) 4 + (1) (3)
= t5 a 5 = a (4) 40 (5) 5 = a (4)
Type Expressions
Example: int[2][3]
array(2,array(3,integer))
A basic type is a type expression
A type name is a type expression
A type expression can be formed by applying the array type constructor to
a number and a type expression.
A record is a data structure with named field
A type expression can be formed by using the type constructor for
function types
If s and t are type expressions, then their Cartesian product s*t is a type
expression
Type expressions may contain variables whose values are type expressions
Type Equivalence
They are the same basic type.
They are formed by applying the same constructor to
structurally equivalent types.
One is a type name that denotes the other.
Declarations
Storage Layout for Local Names
Computing types and their widths
Storage Layout for Local Names
Syntax-directed translation of array types
Sequences of Declarations
Actions at the end:
Fields in Records and Classes
Translation of Expressions and
Statements
We discussed how to find the types and offset of
variables
We have therefore necessary preparations to discuss
about translation to intermediate code
We also discuss the type checking
Three-address code for expressions
Incremental Translation
Addressing Array Elements
Layouts for a two-dimensional array:
Semantic actions for array reference
Translation of Array References
Nonterminal L has three synthesized
attributes:
L.addr
L.array
L.type
Conversions between primitive
types in Java
Introducing type conversions into
expression evaluation
Abstract syntax tree for the
function definition
fun length(x) =
if null(x) then 0 else length(tl(x)+1)
This is a polymorphic function
in ML language
Inferring a type for the function length
Algorithm for Unification
Unification algorithm
boolean unify (Node m, Node n) {
s = find(m); t = find(n);
if ( s = t ) return true;
else if ( nodes s and t represent the same basic type ) return true;
else if (s is an op-node with children s1 and s2 and
t is an op-node with children t1 and t2) {
union(s , t) ;
return unify(s1, t1) and unify(s2, t2);
}
else if s or t represents a variable {
union(s, t) ;
return true;
}
else return false;
}
Control Flow
boolean expressions are often used to:
Alter the flow of control.
Compute logical values.
Short-Circuit Code
Flow-of-Control Statements
Syntax-directed definition
Generating three-address code for booleans
translation of a simple if-statement
Backpatching
Previous codes for Boolean expressions insert symbolic labels for
jumps
It therefore needs a separate pass to set them to appropriate addresses
We can use a technique named backpatching to avoid this
We assume we save instructions into an array and labels will be
indices in the array
For nonterminal B we use two attributes B.truelist and B.falselist
together with following functions:
makelist(i): create a new list containing only I, an index into the array
of instructions
Merge(p1,p2): concatenates the lists pointed by p1 and p2 and returns a
pointer to the concatenated list
Backpatch(p,i): inserts i as the target label for each of the instruction
on the list pointed to by p
Backpatching for Boolean Expressions
Backpatching for Boolean Expressions
Annotated parse tree for x < 100 || x > 200 && x ! = y
Flow-of-Control Statements
Translation of a switch-statement
Continued..
