Heredity

Non-Mendelian Genetics
Mendelian Heredity

 Principle of Dominance 
 Law of Segregation
 Law of Independent Assortment

http://mac122.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/mendel-gifs/01-mendel-himself.JPG
Non-Mendelian Heredity

does not fit Mendel’s Laws

is not governed by one autosomal
gene
Incomplete Dominance
 F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat in between the phenotypes of
the two parental varieties.
 Example: snapdragons (flower)
 red (RR) x white (rr)

 RR = red flower
 rr = white flower
r r

R
What color offspring would you get
when you cross a pure (homozygous)
red snapdragon with a pure white
snapdragon?
Oddly Enough,
Neither Red Nor White

Snapdragon Flower
Color is controlled
by Incomplete
Dominance and a
new 3rd phenotype
is seen.
How does Incomplete
Dominance work?
Incomplete Dominance is a Blending

Like Paint, the

RED Pigment
“MIXES” with the
WHITE to create
PINK-FLOWERED
offspring
Incomplete Dominance

 Heterozygotes look different from

a homozygotes
 Blending of phenotypes

RR x RIRI
http://chsweb.lr.k12.nj.us/psidelsky/Chapter10(Gen).htm

RRI
Incomplete Dominance can be seen in:

 Horses
( Chestnut x Cremello
 Palomino)
 Snapdragons
 Japanese Four O’
Clocks

Many flowers exhibit

incomplete dominance.
Allele Notation

HOW DO YOU WRITE OUT THE

GENOTYPE WHEN BOTH
ALLELES ARE DOMINANT?
You Must Use Different Letters

1. Choose different
letters to represent
each form (In this
case we’ll use “W” RR W
for the white allele W
and “R” for the Red
allele).
2. Remember to always
use CAPITAL letters.
This is incomplete
DOMINANCE.
RW
So…The Cross Between Pure
Snapdragons Looks Like This
R R

W RW RW

W RW RW
You’ve Seen A Cross between Pure
Snapdragons, now do the Punnet
Square for a cross between two hybrids
(heterozygotes).
 What are the alleles of a heterozygous snapdragon?
RW
 What is the genotypic ratio?
1 RR : 2 RW : 1 WW
 What is the phenotypic ratio?
1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White
What kind of genetics do these
organisms exhibit?
Codominance
A cross between 2 tabbies (the
The same ratios as heterozygotes) results in
Incomplete Dominance 1 black : 2 tabbies : 1 tan cat
occur:
A ratio of 1:2:1 for both
genotype and phenotypes
of a monohybrid cross

Different Phenotype:
The two original
phenotypes are
combined to give a
SPOTTED or
MULTICOLORED
phenotype.
Notation for Codominance

1. Choose a letter to represent the gene.

2. Choose different letters to represent each of the
alleles.
3. Take the letters representing the alleles and turn
them into superscripts.
4. Combine the two. Remember to use capital
letters.
Writing out the Genotype

1. We’re going to use C to represent Coat

Color of a shorthorn cow.
2. Roan coat color is a combination of Red
and White hair so we’ll use “R” to
represent Red and “W” to represent
white.
3. R  R and W  W
4. C + R  CR and C + W  CW
5. So a Red Cow would be CRCR , a white
cow would be CWCW, and a roan cow
would be CRCW
Codominance occurs in:

 Shorthorn Cow (White

+ Red)
 Blue Roosters (White
+ Black)
 Human Blood Typing
(AB)
 Tabby Cats (Black
and Tan Fur)
Let’s Practice

Tabby cats exhibit codominance between tan and black

fur.
1. Can Tan Cat be heterozygous? Why or Why not?
2. If you mate a tabby with a black cat, what is the
phenotypic ratio of their offspring?
3. If the offspring of two cats are composed of 36
tabbies and 40 black cats, what are the parental
phenotypes and genotypes?
Blood Typing

 Human blood
typing is an
example of both
Codominance and
Multiple Alleles
 What does
Multiple Alleles
Mean?
Codominance: Both alleles of a gene pair are
expressed.
Example: Human Blood Types
 Human blood type is determined by codominant
alleles. There are three different alleles: IA, IB, and i.
The IA and IB alleles are codominant, and the i allele
is recessive.
 The possible human phenotypes for blood group are
type A, type B, type AB, and type O.
 Type A and B individuals can be either homozygous
(IAIA or IBIB, respectively), or heterozygous (IAi or
IBi, respectively). Type O is IOIO.
S-B-8-1_Non-Mendelian Heredity PowerPoint
 “I” in blood Genotype
“I” designation in blood typing stands for “isoagglutinogen”
another term for Antigen.

Antigens in blood are A, B , both (AB) or none (O)

Antigen = a substance or a marker that a pathogen carries and that

stimulates the production of antibodies
= reacts with specific immune response

Antibodies = a protein produced by some white blood cells to attack specific

foreign materials

Pathogen = an agent that causes disease

The Alleles

A and B blood types

are coded for by the
alleles:
IA and IB respectively.
These two alleles are
CODOMINANT.
 Blood type O is coded
for by the allele i and
is recessive to both IA
and IB (notice the
lower case letter).
 Blood type displays both co-
dominance and complete
dominance
Red Blood cells can either have a carbohydrate on
their surface or not.
 The presence of a carbohydrate (I) is dominant to the
absence of a carb (i).
 Additionally, there are two types of carbs that may
exist on the surface of RBCs called A (IA) and B (IB).
 Cell surface carbs A and B are codominant, which means
they could also show up at the same time on an RBC.
 Blood Type Inheritance Rules:
1. A person with the IA allele Cells Genotypes Blood types
will have A carbohydrates.
A A Type A
2. A person with the IB allele I i, I I
A
blood
will have B carbohydrates.
Type B
3. A person with the recessive
i allele will have no
I i, I I
B B B
blood
carbohydrates. Type AB
4. Or a person with both IA and II
A B
blood
IB alleles will have both A
Type O
and B carbohydrates on
their cells.
ii blood
Let’s Practice

 Could a man with AB blood have an AB

child with a woman with type O blood?
 If a child has type B blood, what are all
the possible blood types for his/her
parents?
 A paternity test is being performed. The
child has type A blood. The mother is
type A. Potential Dad #1 has type B
blood. Potential Dad #2 has type O blood.
Who is the father?

 Challenge: What two parents could

produce the most diverse children as far
as blood type is concerned?
Codominance
Sickle-cell Disease
-common in people
of African descent
-sickled allele
causes hemoglobin to
change and red blood
cell forms a crescent
shape – can’t carry
oxygen well
Codominance
Genotypes:

BN BN: normal blood cells

BNBS: normal blood cells and
sickled cells
BSBS: sickled blood cells
Blood Type Problems

If a woman with AB blood

has children with a man
who has type O, what will
be the possible genotypes
of their children? What will
be their blood types?

IA IB
i IA i IB i
i IA i IB i
Blood Type Problems

Blood Type Problem 2: A

woman with type B blood
has a child with type O
blood. How is this possible
if her husband has type A
blood?
Codominance: More Examples
Rhododendron
coloration
Roan coloration in cows (red
coat with white blotches)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhod http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Light_Roan_Shorthorn_Heifer_DSCN18
odendron.jpg 72b.jpg
THINK-PAIR-SHARE

1. Distinguish between incomplete dominance and

codominance.
2. How many phenotypes are seen when codominance
is possible?
3. Red color (R) in snapdragons shows incomplete
dominance to white snapdragons (RI). The
heterozygotes are pink. If pink snap dragons are
crossed with a white snapdragon, what are the
genotypic/ phenotypic ratios?

R RI

RI RRI RIRI
Multiple Alleles
 When 3 or more possible phenotypes exist
within a population
 Blood type
 Eye & hair color
 Fur in mammals

http://www.learner.org/interactives/dna/genetics8.html
 Multiple Alleles
 When more than 3 varieties exist in a trait. Many animals have a variety of
coat colors.
Problems with Multiple Alleles

A woman with type O blood marries a man with

type AB blood. What are the possible blood
types that a child of theirs could inherit?

STEP 1: ♀ ii ♂ IAIB
STEP 2: i I A , IB
STEP 3:
IA IB
STEP 4:
i IA i I Bi
STEP 5:
STEP 6: There’s a 50% chance that their baby will be
Type A or Type B.
Polygenic Inheritance

Poly-many genic-gene
 More than one gene
on more than one loci
or on more than one
chromosome.
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v10/n12/box/nrg2670_BX1.html

 Give the appearance

of gradation
 Hair& skin color
 Height
 Body size

http://scienceblogs.com/geneticfuture/a_ruler_beats_genetics_in_pred/tall_short1.jpg
 Polygenic Traits
Require more than one gene (allele) to determine trait.
Skin tone is determined by 4-6 genes—that means that there may be six
different chromosomes involved!
Polygenic Traits
A trait that is controlled by more than one
gene.
 Polygenic Traits
So, instead of only 2 alleles contributing
to a trait, there can be 4 or 6 or 8, etc.
alleles contributing to a trait.

Skin color: the more dominant alleles for

each gene, the darker the skin

AABbCc = darker skin

aaBbCc = lighter skin
 THINK-PAIR-SHARE
Black fur (BBl) is completely dominant to brown fur in rabbits, but brown fur
(BBr) is dominant to white (b). A hybrid brown doe (BBrb) is crossed with a
hybrid black buck (BBlb). What are the expected phenotypes of the
offspring? Ratios?
Linked Traits
 When the loci of two genes are located
close together on the same chromosome
 Red hair, freckles, and fair skin are
linked.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Woman_redhead_natural_portrait_1.jpg
Sex-linked Traits
Traits(genes) located on the sex
chromosomes
Sex chromosomes are X and Y
XX genotype for females
XY genotype for males
Many sex-linked traits carried on X
chromosome
Sex-linked Traits
Example: Eye color in fruit flies
Sex Chromosomes

fruit fly
eye color

XX chromosome - female Xy chromosome - male

Sex-linked Trait Problem
 Example: Eye color in fruit flies
 (red-eyed male) x (white-eyed female)
XRY x XrXr
 Remember: the Y chromosome in males does not
carry traits.
 RR = red eyed
 Rr = red eyed
X r
X r

 rr = white eyed
 XY = male XR
 XX = female

Y
Sex-linked Trait Solution:

Xr Xr
50% red eyed
XR X X X X
R r R r
female
50% white eyed
Y Xr Y Xr Y male
 Sex-linked Inheritance
 Genes for some traits are found on the sex
chromosomes (X or y)
 Most of these traits are recessive the normal gene
is dominant
 Heterozygous Females (XXc) are carriers.
carriers They do
not show the trait, but carry a gene for the trait.
 Homozygous Females (XcXc) have the trait
 Males with the gene (XcY) have the trait.—They
.— do
not have another X to counterbalance the affected
gene
 Sex-Linked Traits

 Genes located on a
sex (X or Y)
chromosome
♀XX & ♂XY
 Some forms of
hemophilia
 Red-green
colorblindness

http://www.ccs.k12.in.us/chsteachers/Amayhew/Biology%20Notes/sexlinked%20notes.htm
Epistasis
Ee or EE=
Can have
dark pigment
ee= can’t have
dark pigment

B = darker
Dark pigment
b = lighter
Dark pigment
 Color blindness is a sex-linked
recessive trait. The gene for this
trait is inherited through the X
chromosome.
If a woman with normal vision
has children with a man
who is colorblind, Xc Y
what are the chances
that their children will be
colorblind?
X XXc XY
Will any children be carriers
of the trait? X XXc XY
 Red-Green Colorblindness

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Ishihara_9.png
Female Carriers
Hemophilia

http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/sex-link.htm
Question: Is it possible for a
female carrier of hemophilia to
have a daughter
X H with
Xh
hemophilia?
X X X XX
h H h h h

Y XH Y X h Y
Dosage Compensation
Females have 2
“doses” of X;
Males only have 1
“dose” of X;
To balance this X chromosome:
difference one of Genes necessary
the X chromosomes For male/female
is inactivated or Y chromosome:
turned off Genes necessary
For male only
 Dosage Compensation

Chromosome inactivation: One X in each cell

is randomly inactivated.
Orange = cells where X chrom. with black
allele is inactivated
Black = cells where X chrom. With orange
allele is inactivated
 Calico Cats

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/biex4hnt.htm
Barr Bodies

 The inactive X chromosome found

in female (XX) somatic cells
 Not found in normal males (XY) .
 Explains calico coloring in cats.

http://www.genetics.com.au/factsheet/fs14.asp

The nucleus of a cell. The arrow is

pointing to the inactive X
chromosome, the Barr Body.
Solving Sex-Linked Problems
A woman who is a carrier for red-green
colorblindness marries a man with normal sight.
What percent of the male and female children
will be red-green colorblind or carriers?

STEP 1: ♀ XX' ♂ XY STEP 6:

STEP 2: X, X' X, Y 50% ♀ Normal
STEP 3: 50% ♀Carriers
X Y 50% ♂Normal
STEP 4:
X XX XY 50% ♂ Colorblind
STEP 5:
X' XX' X'Y
 Gene Linkage

Mendel studied genes on

different chromosomes, so they
assorted independently – many
combinations

Genes located close together

on the same chromosome are
said to be linked – they get
passed down to gametes
together – don’t assort
independently
 THINK-PAIR-SHARE

Wild Type
1 2
Homozygous

7 3 8 4 5 6 Heterozygous

1. Is the trait sex-linked? How do you know?

2. How could we tell if female #5 is heterozygous
if she never has children?
3. What are the expected phenotypic ratios from
a cross between #3 & #7?

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Autosomal_Recessive_Pedigree_Chart_.svg