ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

UNIT 1
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
PART 1 – FOUNDRY PRACTICE
PART 2 – WELDING
 FOUNDRY PRACTICE
 Foundry practice involves the preparation of solid patterns,
preparation of a cavity with the help of the patterns in a moulding
material, pouring a molten metal in the cavity of the mould and
withdrawing the solidified metal, called casting, from the mould.
 Depending up on the method of mould preparation or the pouring
method of the metal the processes are variously designated as
Sand moulding, Shell moulding or Die casting etc….
 BASIC FEATURES
 Pattern and Mould
 A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the final
product and is used for preparing mould cavity
 Mould cavity which contains molten metal is essentially a
negative of the final product
 Mould material should posses refractory characteristics and
with stand the pouring temperature
 When the mold is used for single casting, it made of sand and
known as expendable mold
 When the mold is used repeatedly for number of castings and
is made of metal or graphite are called permanent mould
 For making holes or hollow cavities inside a casting, cores
made of either sand or metal are used.
 PATTERNS
 Patterns are the copies of castings
 TYPES
Single-piece pattern
Splitpattern
Follow board pattern
Cope and drag pattern
Match plate pattern
Loose-piece pattern
Sweep pattern
Skeleton pattern
(a)Split pattern
(b) Follow-board
(c) Match Plate
(d) Loose-piece
(e) Sweep
(f) Skeleton
pattern
 PATTERN MATERIALS
 Patterns may be constructed from the following materials.
Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of
 application. Some materials used for making patterns are:
wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and
 rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern
material should be:
 1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
 2. Light in weight
 3. Strong, hard and durable
 4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
 5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
 6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
 7. Available at low cost
 PATTERN MATERIALS
 Wood
 Metals like Cast iron, Steel, Brass, Aluminium,
 Plastics
 Plaster of paris or gypsum cement, Wax
 The selection of pattern materials depends on the
fallowing factors
1. Production quantity
2. Dimensional accuracy required
3. Moulding process used
4. Size and shape of the pattern
 WOODEN PATTERN
Advantages
 Easily shaped
 Joined to form any complex shape
 Light in weight
 Easily available
 Cost is less
 Suitable for small production only
 METAL PATTERN
 Advantages
 Durable, and produce castings of improved surface
finish
 High strength, and do not deform in storage
 Wear resistance and maintain dimensional stability.
 Suitable for large production
 Double allowances have to made for contraction &
machining

 Disadvantages
 Much heavier
 More difficult repair and modify
Steel, cast iron, aluminum, brass
 PLASTICS PATTERN
 advantages
 Produced more cheaply than metal patterns

 High strength and light weight

 Cores: Cores are defined as bodies of sand, designed to form

holes and cavities in casting
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES
 The size of pattern is slightly larger than the finished casting by
an amount is called allowance
 A pattern dimensions are more than the casting dimensions
 The following allowances are given to the pattern

1. Shrinkage allowance

2. Machining allowances

3. Draft allowances

4. Distortion allowances

5. Rapping allowances
 SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCES:
 The pattern must be made oversize to compensate for contraction
of liquid metal on cooling
 This addition to the dimension of the pattern is known as shrinkage
allowance.

MACHINING ALLOWANCES:
 It is often necessary to produce the finished surface of casting by
machining
 The excess in the dimensions of the casting is called machining
allowances
 Machining allowances in addition to shrinkage allowance is given
to the pattern
 DRAFT ALLOWANCES
 When a pattern is removed from a mold ,the tendency to tear
away the edges of the mold is greatly reduced the vertical
surfaces of the pattern are tapered inwards
 The provision of taper on vertical faces of the pattern is called
draft
 The amount of draft recommended on external surfaces varies
from 10 to 20mm per Meter
DISTORTION ALLOWANCES
 Distortion allowances are applied to the castings of irregular
shapes
 That are distorted in cooling because of metal shrinkage

RAPPING ALLOWANCES:
 Due to rapping of the pattern in the mold, the size of mold cavity
increases slightly
 These increase is insignificant for small and medium size of
casting but it must be considered large castings
 MOULDING
 It is the process of preparing a mould, a cavity in a suitable
material called moulding material, into which the molten metal is
poured to produce the casting.
 MOULDING METHODS:
 Sand moulding
a. Bench moulding
b. Floor moulding
c. Pit moulding and
d. Machine moulding
 Green sand moulding
 Dry sand moulding
 Skin-dried moulding
 Loam moulding
 Cement bonded moulding
 Co2 -process moulding
 Shell moulding
MOULD CAVITIES :-
MOULD MADE IN STONE:
MASTER MOULD WITH
CASTING:
SOME OF THE COMPONENTS
MANUFACTURED BY DIFFERENT
CASTING METHODS
 MOULDING MATERIALS
 Types of moulding materials:
 MOULDING SANDS:

1. Refractory sand grains

2. Clay
3. Water
4. Special additives
 VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDRY SANDS:

1. Natural moulding sand

2. Synthetic sand
3. Parting sand
4. Facing sand
5. Floor sand or backing sand
6. Core sand
 RECLAMATION OF MOULDING SAND
1. Dry reclamation
2. Wet reclamation
3. Thermal reclamation
CORES
Cores are defined as bodies of sand, designed to form
hollow cavities holes and cavities in casting. Core is made up of
the backing sand.
Backing sand is made up of used and burnt sand.
 MOULDING TOOLS
1. Moulding flask
2. Moulding board
3. Shovel
4. Riddle
5. Rammers
6. Trowels
7. Slick
8. Lifter
9. Bellow
10. Strike of bar
11. Vent rod
12. Sprue pin
13. Gate cutter
14. Swab
15. Draw spikes
16. Rapper
17. Lifting plate
SAND CASTING MOLD
 CASTING MOLD TERMS
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Upper half of mold: Cope
 Bottom half of mold: Drag
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called: Flask

 The two halves separate at the: Parting line

 Gating system consists of:

 Horizontal tube openings through which metal travels to the

main cavity: Runner
 Vertical tube opening of varying diameter designed to control
metal flow velocity: Down sprue,
 Topmost opening designed to minimize splash and
turbulence: Pouring cup
 RISER

Reservoir in the mold which acts as a source of liquid metal during

solidification to: compensate for shrinkage of the part

 In order to satisfy its function, the riser must be designed to

freeze (before or after) the main casting
 DEFINE CASTING
 Castings are produced when the molten metal is poured into
mould cavity and left to solidify.
 Material is heated to molten state in furnace

 Molten metal poured in a mould cavity

(required shape)
 Product is taken out from mould cavity, trimmed and cleaned

Sequence of operations
 Pattern making

 Mould and core making

 Melting and pouring

 Fettling and

 Inspection
 TWO CATEGORIES OF CASTING
PROCESSES
1. Uses a mold which is destroyed to remove casting: expendable
mold processes
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
2. Uses a mold which can be used over and over: permanent mold
processes
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material
 FURNACE :-
 Device used for melting the material

 Iron obtained in the smelting furnaces

 First cast into ingots

 Re-melted in foundry for casting the required objects

Iron ore before converting into raw

material
Resources into raw materials
FOR SUCCESSFUL CASTING
 Preparation of mould

 Melting & pouring

 Solidification

 Defects & inspection

 CAPABILITIES OF CASTING

 Can create complex part geometries

 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
 Can produce a wide variety of sized parts:
 Large parts: Engine blocks, wood burning stoves, railway
wheels, pipes, church bells, statues, etc.
 Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying

pans
 LIMITATIONS OF CASTING

1. Limitations on mechanical properties (cold working, heat

treating, alloy segregation, etc.)

2. Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some

processes; e.g., sand casting

3. Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals

 APPLICATIONS OF CASTING PROCESS
Typical applications of sand casting are:
 Cylinder blocks

 Liners

 Machine tool beds

 Pistons

 Piston rings

 Mill rolls

 Wheels

 Housings

 Water supply pipes

 Bells etc…….
 ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS
 Possible to cast any material (ferrous or non-ferrous).
 Tools required (for casting moulds) are simple & inexpensive.

 Weight reduction in design can be achieved.

 No directional properties.

 Casting of any size & weight even up to 200 tons can be made.

 Molten material flow into any small sections in the cavity & any
intricate shapes can be made.
 Scrap can be recycled.
 CASTING METHODS
 Sand mould casting process
 Shell-mould casting process
 Investment casting process
 Die casting (metal mould)
 Centrifugal casting
 SAND MOULD CASTING :-
 Widely used process
 Expendable mould

 Process involves the use of furnace, raw material, pattern,

moulding sand, cope & drag, tools for making mould
Process cycle for sand casting process :-
 Mould making

 Clamping

 Pouring

 Cooling

 Removal

 Trimming
SAND CASTING
ADVANTAGES
 Itcan produce very large parts
 Many material options

 Scrap can be recycled

 Low tooling & equipment cost

LIMITATIONS:
 Poor mould strength
 Poor surface finish

 Low production rate

 High labour cost

 Secondary machine is often required

APPLICATIONS
 Engine blocks, gears, pulleys, machine basis, & manifolds
SHELL MOLD CASTING
 Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is a
thin shell (typically 9 mmor 3/8 in) made of sand held
together by a thermosetting resin binder.
 This process uses organic binders like epoxy resin, phenolic
resin.
 For production of high quality castings from small to
medium size.
 In this process mold material is a mixture of phenolic resin
& fine sand.
 This process uses patterns of gray iron, aluminum, brass.
 First pattern is heated to 230oC -260oC.
 Silicon grease is then sprayed on the heated metal pattern for
easy separation.
 Then sand mixture is dumped over its surface.
 After 30 seconds, a hard layer of sand is formed over
pattern.
 Pattern and shell are heated and treated in an oven at 315°C
for 60 sec
 The shells are clamped and usually embedded in gravel,
coarse sand or metal shot.
 Then mold is ready for pouring.
 ADVANTAGES :-
 Smoothness of the mould wall independent of the
moulder’s skill.

 Good accuracy of dimensions & surface finish can be

achieved.

 Process can used for all cast materials

 High rate of production is suitable with limited floor

space.
 In most cases machining operation is required.
LIMITATIONS :-
 Cost of metal pattern is high.

 Cost of resin is high.

 Many equipment and control facilities are needed.

 Casting size and weight are limited.

 APPLICATIONS :-
 It is used for making fine castings of ferrous and non ferrous
metals.
Cylinder heads, connecting rods
INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS
 Also called lost wax process or precision casting
 In investment casting, a pattern is made of wax
 Molten wax is injected in to a metal die
 Dipping the pattern tree into a slurry of fine ceramic
particles and rotated to produce uniform coating
 Ceramic shell is formed around the pattern
 The small grain size of the ceramic material provides a
smooth surface and captures the intricate details of the wax
pattern.
 Fine grain silica sand is sprinkled onto the wet slurry
 The shell is then placed in an oven and the wax is melted
out leaving a hollow ceramic shell
 The mould is preheated in a furnace to approximately
10000 c to increase the strength of the mould
 The molten metal is poured into the cavity
 The mold is allowed to cool at a slow rate
 The casting is removed using water jet or vibration
ADVANTAGES :-
 Can form complex shapes
 High strength parts

 Very good surface finish & accuracy

 Many material options

 Little need for secondary machining

LIMITATIONS :-
 Time consuming process
 High labor cast

 High tooling cost

APPLICATIONS :-
 Turbine blades, armament parts, pipe fittings, lock parts, hand
tools.
DIE CASTING
 Involves use of permanent metal moulds or dies
 Dies are usually a pair, when both are placed together the
cavity for the complete casting is obtained
 Two parts of die, fixed and moving dies
 Fixed die is mounted on die casting machine
 Moving die is moved out for the extraction of casting
 Initially the two dies are apart
 Lubricant is sprayed on the dies
 The two dies are closed by clamping them together
 Required amount of molten metal is injected in to the die
at high pressure
 After the solidification the die is opened and casting is
ejected
 Types of die casting machines

1. Hot chamber machines

a. Operated by plunger

b. Operated by compressed air

2. Cold chamber machine

HOT CHAMBER MACHINE
 It consists of mainly a hot chamber and a gooseneck type
metal container immersed in the holding furnace containing
molten metal
 The plunger develops necessary pressure for forcing the
metal in the die cavity
 After the solidification, the casting is ejected at a rapid rate
and the same time plunger moves up as a result it uncovers
the port and molten metal enters into the cylinder
 AIR OPERATED MACHINE
 In this machine, a suitable mechanism is used to raise or
lower the gooseneck
 When gooseneck is lowered it receives the molten metal
from the pot
 Then it is raised and held in position against nozzle
 Compressed air is blown in to the gooseneck which forces
the metal to fill the die cavity
COLD CHAMBER MACHINE
 Employed for the alloys of aluminium, magnesium and
copper
 Metal is melted in a separate furnace then transferred to the
injection cylinder of the die casting machine
 Molten metal is injected into the die cavity using a plunger
operated hydraulically
 Has a longer operating cycle
ADVANTAGES

1. Because of the use of the movable cores, It is possible to fairly

obtain the complex shapes

2. Very small thickness can be easily filled because the liquid

metal is injected at high pressures

3. Because of the metallic dies very good surface finish can be

obtained

4. The dies has the long life which is of the order of 300000
pieces

5. It is very economical for large scale production

 LIMITATIONS

1. The max. size of the casting is limited. 4kg to 15kg

2. This is not suitable for all materials

3. The dies and machines are very expensive

APPLICATIONS
 Carburetors, Crank cases, magnetos, Parts of scooters &
motor cycles, zip fasteners and decorative items on
automobiles.
 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
 The mould is rotated rapidly about its neutral axis.
 Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will
be acting on the metal as it solidifies
 The slag, oxides and inclusions being lighter get separated
from the metal and segregates towards the centre
 Best suited for mass production
 Types of centrifugal casting are

1. True centrifugal casting

2. Semi centrifugal casting

3. centrifuging
TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

 In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a

rotating mold to produce a tubular part.
 Examples of parts made by this process include pipes, tubes,
bushings, and rings.
 The products are hollow cylindrical in shape
A hollow cylindrical mould rotates about an axis common
to both casting and the mould
 Axis of rotation may be horizontal, vertical or inclined
 The mold used for this process may be either permanent
type or a sand mold
 Force upto 50 to 100 times of gravity are developed
 The molding flask is properly rammed with sand and is
dynamically balanced to reduce the vibrations during
casting process
 The finished flask is mounted on the rollers and the mold is
rotated
 Molten metal is poured in to the mold through the movable
pouring basin
 The thickness of the pipe depends on the amount of metal
poured
 After pouring, the mold is rotated till the metal solidifies to
the requisite form
 Then the mold is replaced by new mold
 Metal molds can also be used for large quantity production
 Very long pipes are cast with horizontal axis where as short
pipes are cast by vertical axis
 SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• It is similar to true centrifugal casting but only with a difference
that a central core is used to form the inner surface.
• This casting process is generally used for articles which are more
complicated than those possible in true centrifugal casting,
• Axisymmetric in nature products are produced
• Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings, rather than
tubular parts
• A particular shape of the casting is produced by mold and
core and not by centrifugal force.
• The centrifugal force aids proper feeding and helps in
producing the castings free from porosity.
CENTRIFUGE CASTING
 In centrifuge casting, the mold is designed with part cavities
located away from the axis of rotation
 The molten metal poured into the mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force.
 The process is used for smaller parts, and radial symmetry
of the part is not a requirement as it is for the other two
centrifugal casting methods.
ADVANTAGES
1. The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast jobs are
better compared to other processes
2. No cores are required for making concentric holes
3. There is no need for gates and runners
4. No slag and oxide inclusions
 LIMITATIONS

1. Only certain shapes which are ax symmetric and having

can be produced

2. The equipment is expensive and thus is suitable for large

quantities

APPLICATIONS

1. Cast iron pipes, spigot ends or flanged ends

2. Pipes, barrels-gun, street lamp posts & other hollow axis-
symmetric components
CASTING DEFECTS
 Any irregularities during casting process causes defects in
castings
 The various defects are

1. Gas defects

2. Shrinkage defects

3. Molding material defects

4. Pouring metal defects

5. Metallurgical defects
GAS DEFECTS
1. Blow holes and open blows
 Spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside
the casting or on the surface of the casting
 Moisture left in the mold and core

2. Air Inclusions
 Due to absorption of gases by the molten metal in the
furnace, they cannot escape and weaken the mold during
casting.
 Due to high pouring temperatures
3. Pin hole porosity
 Caused by hydrogen in the molten metal
 Hydrogen While leaving the solidifying metal, it causes
very small dia and long pinholes showing the path of
escape
 Pin holes causes Leakage of fluids under high operating
pressure.
 This is mainly due to High pouring temperatures.
 SHRINKAGE CAVITIES
 Caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during solidification
process
 To compensate this proper feeding of liquid metal is requried
MOULDING MATERIAL DEFECTS
1. Cuts and washes
Appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal and caused
by erosion of Molding sand by the flowing molten metal

2. Runout
Caused when molten metal leaks out of the mold
Caused because of faulty mould making
3. Swell
Refers to the condition of enlargement of mould cavity when
the molten metal is poured into the mould
Caused by insufficient ramming or by pouring the metal too
rapidly

4. Drop
The dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps from the cope
surface into the mould cavity is responsible for this defect
this is due to improper ramming of the cope flask.
POURING METAL DEFECTS
1. Miss runs and cold shuts
Miss run is Caused when the metal is unable to fill the mould
cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities
Cold shut is Caused when two cold metal stream of molten
metal meet at the junction and do not fuse together

2. Slag formation
During melting process flux is added to remove undesirable
oxides and impurities present in the metal
The slag should be removed from the ladle before pouring
METALLURGICAL DEFECTS
1. Hot tears
 Metal has low strength at higher temperatures, any
unwanted cooling stress may cause the rapture of the
casting
 Due to poor casting design

2. Hot spots
 Caused by chilling of the casting.
 Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mold
to increase the cooling rate of casting to provide uniform
or desired cooling rate
COMMON CASTING DEFECTS
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
 PART 2
WELDING
 Welding is a process of joining two or more pieces of the same or
dissimilar materials (metals) by the application of heat and
pressure.

APPLICATIONS:
 Boilers, pressure vessels, ships, bridges, storage tanks, pipelines,
railway coaches, missiles & rockets, nuclear reactors, chemical
plants, automobile parts, press frames & water turbines etc.
 WELDING CLASSIFICATION

PRESSURE WELDING FUSION WELDING

FORGE RESISTANCE PRESSURE FUSION

ARC GAS
THERMIT THERMIT

SPOT SEAM BUTT METAL CARBON INERT GAS OXY-ACETYLENE

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRESSURE
& FUSION WELDING
 In Pressure welding the joint area of the base metal is
heated to plastic state & forced together by external
pressure without addition of filler material.

 In fusion welding the joint area of the part is heated to

fusion state (molten) & a joint is formed as a result of
solidification. In this case filler material is used during
welding process.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as
compared to other processes (riveting, bolting, casting etc.)

2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having

strength equal or sometimes more than base metal.

3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar

can be joined by welding.

4. General welding equipment is not very costly.

5. Portable welding equipment can be easily made available.

 DISADVANTAGES
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the work pieces.

2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.

3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.

4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to
be welded

5. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding

6. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure

of the welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal.
ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT :-
 Based on current source:
AC machines : Transformer
DC machines : Transformer with DC rectifier
 Electrodes

 Electrode holder

 Cables

 Safety devices

 Tools
 Joints, Welds & Positions
Arc Welding Positions

Flat
Horizontal

Vertical Up Vertical Down

Overhead
 ARC WELDING
 Thisthe most efficient method of welding where the
source of heat is an electric arc.

 This
type of welding uses a power supply (either DC or
AC) to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the base/parent material to melt the metals at the
welding point.
The electrodes used are of two types

ELECTRODES

CONSUMABLE NON CONSUMABLE

BARE COATED ELECTRODE

CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES:

These are made up of various metals depending up on the purpose and

chemical composition of the metals to be welded.
They may be made of steel, cast iron, copper, brass, bronze or aluminium.
When the arc is obtained by the consumable electrode, the weld metal
under the arc melts.
Here the filler metal and heat are both built into a single electrode.

NON CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES:

These are made of carbon, graphite or tungsten can also be used for arc
welding.
Here the filler metal required has to be deposited through a separate filler
rod. Thus in this method the proper control of heat and filler metal is
possible as both are separately controlled.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
 Also called Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)
 It uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.
 The flux coating of electrode decomposes due to arc heat and serves
many functions, like weld metal protection, arc stability etc.
 An AC or DC power supply is used to form an electric arc between
the electrode and the metals to be joined.
 Inner core of the electrode supply the filler material for making a
weld.
 Because of its versatility of process and simplicity of equipment and
operation, it is the most extensively used welding process.
OPERATION:
 The arc is formed by momentarily touching the tip of the electrode unto
the plate.
 Then lifting the electrode to give a gap of 3 mm – 6 mm between the tip
and the plate.
 When the electrode touches the plate, current commences to flow.
 As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off
shielding gases that protect the weld area from atmospheric gases.
 In addition the flux provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as
it travels from the electrode to the weld pool.
 After the deposited weld gets solidified (hardened) the slag must be
chipped away to reveal the finished weld.
 APPLICATIONS
• Almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can
be welded by this process.
• Is used both as a fabrication process and for maintenance and
repair jobs.
• The process finds applications in
(a) Building and Bridge construction
(b) Automotive and aircraft industry, etc
(c) Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication
(d) Ship building
(e) Pipes and
(f) Penstock joining
 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OR
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING
 In this welding process an arc is set up between a non
consumable tungsten electrode and the work to be joined. An
inert gas supply through a welding head provides a shielding. A
separate filler rod is used manually (melted in the arc), if needed.
This method is sometimes called by its old name, tungsten inert
gas (TIG) welding.

Advantages:
1.No flux is required.
2.High welding speed and
3.Can be used for ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.
 GAS METAL ARC (GMAW) WELDING OR
METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING
 This process is also called as metal inert gas (MIG) welding.
 A consumable metal is fed from a reel through gaseous shield to
serve as an electrode.
 An arc is established between the wire electrode and the work piece.
 The wire constantly melted to form the molten weld pool which is
always converted under the gaseous shield.
 This process gives very clean welds in thicker work materials at
quite high rates.
 For example, metals 5 mm to 50 mm thick can be welded with a
metal deposition rate up to 7 kg per hour or more.
 Shielding gases may be inert ones like argon and helium and their
mixtures with some other gases; or carbon-dioxide. When CO2 is
used as a shielding gas (for welding low carbon steels) the process is
sometimes called as metal active gas (MAG) welding.
Advantages:
1.No flux is required
2.High welding speed
3.Possible to weld non-
ferrous metals, and
4.The process is cheaper

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

GAS WELDING :-
 Gas welding is classified under the fusion welding process.

 Heat source is a gas flame

 Different gas combination can be used for producing the flame.

 Usually the mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used for welding

purposes, producing temperatures in the range of 3200-3300°C.

 In gas welding the two surfaces to be welded are properly

prepared and placed near each temperature by heat from the
flame and the weld is completed by supplying additional metal as
the filler metal obtained by a filler rod.
THE FIRE TRIANGLE
TO PRODUCE FIRE, THREE THINGS MUST BE
PRESENT AT THE SAME TIME
THE BASIC PROCESS THAT ALLOWS THE OXY-
ACETYLENE EQUIPMENT TO WORK.

OXYGEN
HEAT

FUEL
 CHEMICALS USED
 Oxygen
 Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas
 Supports combustions & increase heat
 Produce by cooling air to a low temperature and turning it
into liquid where the oxygen is separate out.
 Acetylene
 Colorless, has a very distinctive odor
 Highly flammable
 Produce by mixing calcium carbide (coke + limestone burnt
together) and water yields acetylene and calcium hydroxide.
OXY-ACETYLENE GAS WELDING :-
 It develops in 1900’s

 Itutilizes the heat generated by the combustion of oxy-

acetylene

 Burning acetylene in the presence of oxygen.

 At the tip of the nozzle.

 The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is 3250oC

 Heat is to melt parent metal to form a weld pool.

 Filler is added separately.

 Torch moved to achieve a required length.

 Molten metal is protected by the gaseous products of the flame.

The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
Oxyacetylene Flame Types :-

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The
gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. .
Oxyacetylene Torch
(a) General view of and (b) cross-
section of a torch used in
oxyacetylene welding. The acetylene
valve is opened first; the gas is lit
with a spark lighter or a pilot light;
then the oxygen valve is opened and
the flame adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-gas
welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed, whereas those
for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen
regulators are usually painted green,
and acetylene regulators red.
OXY-ACETYLENE GAS WELDING
EQUIPMENT :-
1. Welding torch or blow pipe
2. Pressure regulator
3. Hoses and fittings
4. Cylinders
5. Spark lighters etc
6. Goggles
7. Apron
8. Gloves
9. Welding rods
10. Flux
OXYGEN CYLINDER:-

 pure oxygen produced by liquefaction process.

 Made up of steel

 Painted in black colour

 It contains oxygen at a pressure of 175 bar

 It can store 7m3 of gas.

ACETYLENE CYLINDER :-

 It
contains acetylene product of carbon carbide &
water.

 Made up of steel

 Painted in maroon colour.

 Cylinder contains acetylene at 15 bar

 The capacity of cylinder is 6m3 of gas.

TYPE OF ACETYLENE FLAME :-

Depending on the relative amount of oxygen & acetylene

, the gas flame is classified into three types.

 Oxidising flame

 Neutral flame

 Reducing (carburising) flame

Oxyacetylene Flame Types :-

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in
(a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuel-gas
welding operation.
ADVANTAGES :-
 The relative cost of the equipment is low.

 No electricity is required for this process.

 Can be used for welding in all positions.

 Can be used on both thick and thin materials, which makes it a

very versatile process.

 Very clean, producing no slag or spatter that must be removed

from the weld.

 Produces high quality welds when done properly.

 LIMITATIONS :-
 The materials that can be welded are limited primarily to ferrous
materials.

 Can create a “Hot Zone”, fire hazard, because of the sparks and
flame generated in the welding process.

 Requires the handling of high pressure gases.

 The process can often be slow when compared to other types of

welding processes.

 high temperature flame only with oxy-acetylene .

OXY-FUEL GAS FLAME CUTTING :-
 It is oxygen cutting process
 It is used for separating or cutting the a part from the whole.

 It uses cutting torch to generate flame.

 Oxy-acetylene flame preheats the metal to be cut.

 After a spot area along the line of cut is heated to ignition temp
(900oC).
 Thin jet of high purity of oxygen at pressure of 300kpa is then
directed or shot at this heated spot .
 The jet quickly penetrates through the steel by cutting it.

 The torch moves progressively forward over the metal surface.

FLAME CUTTING :-

(a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of the torch
nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate, showing drag lines.
 Differences in torch tips for gas welding and gas cutting

For pre-heating
Oxygen Jet

Position of cutting torch in oxy-fuel gas cutting

Direction
of travel

pre-heating flames

Drag Kerf
Slag + Molten metal
ADVANTAGES :-
(i) Shapes and sizes difficult to be machined by mechanical methods
can be easily cut by flame cutting.

(ii) The process is faster than mechanical cutting methods.

(iii) The cost of flame cutting is low as compared to that on a

machine tool, i.e. mechanical cutting machine.

(iv) Flame cutting equipment being portable also, can be used for
the field work.

(v) Multitorch machines can cut a number of pieces simultaneously

 DISADVANTAGES OF FLAME
CUTTING :-
 (i) Flame cutting is limited to the cutting of steels and cast iron.

 (ii) As compared to mechanical cutting, the dimensional

tolerances are poor.

 (iii) The place of cutting needs adequate ventilation and proper

fume control.
 (iv) The expelled red hot slag and other particles present fire and
burn hazards to plant and workers.
 USES :-
 (i) To prepare edges of plates for bevel and groove weld joint
designs.

 (ii) To cut small sized work pieces from bigger plates for further
processing.

 (iii) To cut rivets, gates and risers from castings.

 (iv) To cut many layers of thin sheets at the same time (stack
cutting) to reduce both time and cost for production work.

 (v) To pierce holes and slots in steel plates.

RESISTANCE WELDING :-
 In resistance welding both heat & pressure are used to effect
coalescence.
 Heat is the consequence of the resistance of the work piece.

 A certain amount of pressure is applied initially to hold the work

piece in contact.
 Joint occurs at lower temperature than required for gas & arc
welding.
 Melting of base metal does not occur.

 It is considered as solid state welding.

 Joint achieved in few seconds.

 Very rapid & economical suitable for automated manufacturing.

 Air

Pneumatic and
Air hydraulic
valve cylinder

Resistance welding
Resistance welding
FACTORS EFFECTING THE RESISTANCE
WELDING :-
 Heat
 Resistance

 Temperature

 Pressure

 Current control
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
ROCKER ARM TYPE RESISTANCE SPOT
WELDING MACHINE
BRAZING
:-
 Low melting point material is melted & drawn
into the space between two solid surfaces.

 Joining of metals by heat & filler material.

 Melting
point of filler material above the 450o C
& below metals being joined.
 COMPARISON WITH
WELDING :-
 Composition of brazing alloy is different from the base
metal.

 Melting point of brazing alloy is lower than of the base

metal.

 Strengthof the brazing alloy is substantially lower than

the base metal.
STRENGTH OF BRAZING :-
The bonding is enhanced by cleanly surfaces, proper
clearance, good wetting,& good fluidity.

 Bond strength

 Wettability

 Fluidity
 APPLICATIONS
:-
 Brazing is applicable to cast and wrought irons, steels, Cu and
Cu alloys, Al and Al alloys, Mg and Mg alloys and to so many
other materials.

 Brazing is used in place of welding where special metallurgical

characteristics of metals have to be preserved after joining.

 Brazing can join

(a) Cast metals to wrought metals.
(b) Non-metals to metals.
(c) Dissimilar metals.
(d) Porous metal components
FREQUENTLY USED BRAZING
MATERIALS :-
 Copper
 Silver

 Copper zinc alloys

 Aluminum –silicon alloys

 SOLDERING
:-
 Soldering is similar to brazing operation.
 Filler material has a low melting temperature below
than the 450o C
 Bond strength relatively low

 Bonding being the result of adhesion between the

solder & the parent metal.
 Most solder material are alloy of lead & tin,tin-
antimony,tin-zinc.