SEMICONDUCTOR

P type,N type semiconductor,PN

junction diode,forward bias and reverse
bias characteristics of PN junction diode
n-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is
known as n-type semiconductor.
To explain the formation of n-type semiconductor,
consider a pure germanium crystal. We know that
germanium atom has four valence electrons. When a
small amount of pentavalent impurity like phosphorus is
added to germanium crystal, a large number of free
electrons become available in the crystal. The reason is
simple. Phosphorus is pentavalent i.e. its atom has
five valence electrons. A Phosphorus atom fits in
the germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence
electrons form covalent bonds with four germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron of
Phosphorus atom finds no place in co-valent bonds and is thus free as shown in Fig. Therefore,
for each arsenic atom added, one free electron will be available in the germanium crystal.
Though each arsenic atom provides one free electron, yet an extremely small amount of arsenic
impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
n-type conductivity
The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly
by free electrons i.e. negative charges and is called n-type or
electron type conductivity. To understand n-type conductivity,
When p.d. is applied across the n-type semiconductor, the free
electrons (donated by impurity) in the crystal will be directed
towards the positive terminal, constituting electric current. As the
current flow through the crystal is by free electrons which are carriers
of negative charge, therefore, this type of conductivity is called negative or n-type conductivity.
It may be noted that conduction is just as in ordinary metals like copper.
p-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-
type semiconductor.
To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a
pure germanium crystal. When a small amount of trivalent
impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal, there exists
a large number of holes in the crystal. The reason is simple.
Gallium is trivalent i.e. its atom has three valence electrons. Each
atom of gallium fits into the germanium crystal but now only
three co-valent bonds can be formed. It is because three valence
electrons of gallium atom can form only three single co-valent bonds
with three germanium atoms as shown in Fig. In the fourth co-valent bond, only germanium
atom contributes one valence electron while gallium has no valence electron to contribute as all
its three valence electrons are already engaged in the co-valent bonds with neighbouring
germanium atoms. In other words, fourth bond is incomplete; being short of one electron. This
missing electron is called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created. A
small amount of gallium provides millions of holes.
p-type conductivity
The current conduction in p-type semiconductor
is predominantly by holes i.e. positive charges
and is called p-type or hole-type conductivity.
To understand p-type conductivity,. When p.d.
is applied to the p-type semiconductor, the holes
(donated by the impurity) are shifted from one co-valent bond to another. As the holes are
positively charged, therefore, they are directed towards the negative terminal, constituting what
is known as hole current. It may be noted that in p-type conductivity, the valence electrons
move from one co-valent bond to another unlike the n-type where current conduction is by free
electrons.
pn Junction
When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface
is called pn junction.
At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free electrons
near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region where they combine with
holes near the junction. The result is that n region
loses free electrons as they diffuse into the junction.
This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent
ions) near the junction. As the electrons move
across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons
and holes combine. The result is that there is a layer of
negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These
two layers of positive and negative charges form
the depletion region (or depletion layer). The
term depletion is due to the fact that near the junction,
the region is depleted (i.e. emptied) of charge carries (free electrons and holes) due to diffusion
across the junction. It may be noted that depletion layer is formed very quickly and is very thin
compared to the n region and the p region.
Once pn junction is formed and depletion layer created, the diffusion of free electrons stops.
In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of free electrons
across the junction. The positive and negative charges set up an electric field. The electric field is
a barrier to the free electrons in the n-region. There exists a potential difference across the
depletion layer and is called barrier potential (V0 ).
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends upon several factors including the type of
semiconductor material, the amount of doping and temperature. The typical barrier potential is
approximately: For silicon, V0 = 0.7 V ; For germanium, V0 = 0.3 V.

Applying D.C. Voltage Across pn Junction or Biasing a pn Junction

In relation to a pn junction, there are following two bias conditions :
1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing

1. Forward biasing : When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction
that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing.

To apply forward bias, connect positive terminal of the

battery to p-type and negative terminal to n-type. The applied
forward potential establishes an electric field which acts
against the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the
resultant field is weakened and the barrier height is reduced
at the junction. As potential barrier voltage is very small
(0.1 to 0.3 V), therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient
to completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is
eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes
almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Therefore, current
flows in the circuit. This is called forward current. With forward bias to pn junction, the following
points are worth noting :
(i) The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (0.1 to 0.3 V), it is eliminated
altogether. (ii) The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf ) to current flow.
(ii) The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf ) to current flow.
(iii) Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance path. The magnitude
of current depends upon the applied forward voltage.

2. Reverse biasing : When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction
that potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse biasing.

To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the

battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type. It is clear
that applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field
which acts in the same direction as the field due to
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the
junction is strengthened and the barrier height is
increased. The increased potential barrier prevents the
flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high
resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence the
current does not flow. With reverse bias to pn junction, the
following points are worth noting :

(i) The potential barrier is increased

(ii) The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse resistance, Rr ) to current flow.

(iii) No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of high resistance path.
Volt-Ampere Characteristics of pn Junction

Forward bias : With forward bias to the pn junction i.e. p-type connected to positive terminal
and n-type connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier is reduced. At some forward
voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current
starts flowing in the circuit. From now onwards, the current increases with the increase in
forward voltage. Thus, a rising curve OB is obtained with forward bias. From the forward
characteristic, it is seen that at first (region OA),the current increases very slowly and the curve
is non-linear. It is because the external applied voltage is used up in overcoming the potential
barrier. However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the pn
junction behaves like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, the current rises very sharply with
increase in external voltage (region AB on the curve). The curve is almost linear.
Reverse bias : With reverse bias to the pn junction i.e. p-type connected to negative terminal
and n-type connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is increased.
Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no current flows through
the circuit. However, in practice, a very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit
with reverse bias as shown in the reverse characteristic. This is called reverse saturation current
(I s ) and is due to the minority carriers. It may be recalled that there are a few free electrons in
p-type material and a few holes in n-type material. These undesirable free electrons in p-type
and holes in n-type are called minority carriers. To these minority carriers, the applied reverse
bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small current flows in the reverse direction.
If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority
carriers) may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At
this stage breakdown of the junction occurs, characterised by a sudden rise of reverse current
and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction
permanently.

Important Terms
(i) Breakdown voltage : It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down
with sudden rise in reverse current.
(ii) Knee voltage : It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.
(iii) Maximum forward current : It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a pn
junction can conduct without damage to the junction.Manufacturer’s data sheet usually
specifies this rating.If the forward current in a pn junction is more than this rating, the junction
will be destroyed due to overheating.
(iv) Peak inverse voltage (PIV) : It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the pn
junction without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its
PIV, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat.
(v) Maximum power rating : It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction
without damaging it. The power dissipated at the junction is equal to the product of junction
current and the voltage across the junction.