STATISTICS AND DATA

CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW

• Classification of Organization of Data

• Presentation and Interpretation of Data

• Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of Dispersion

• Symmetric and Asymmetric Distributions

 CLASSIFICATION AND
ORGANIZATION OF DATA
 DATA
• individual pieces of factual information recorded and used for the
purpose of analysis.
• It is the raw information from which statistics are created.  

RAW DATA
- data collected in an investigation and they are not organized
systematically

GROUP DATA
- raw data that are presented in the form of a frequency
distribution.
 THE PURPOSES OF DATA GATHERING

• characterization (e.g., describing weaknesses and strengths),

• assessment (e.g., evaluating program effectiveness),
• evaluation (e.g., examining the quality of the educational process or
learner outcomes),
• control,
• prediction, and
• improvement.
 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

1. Direct or Interview Method - a person-to-person interaction between an

interviewer and an interviewee
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method - Written responses are obtained by distributing
questionnaires to the respondents
3. Registration Method - enforced by private organizations or government agencies
for recording purposes.
4. Observation Method - used when the objective is to determine the cause-and-effect
of a certain phenomenon under some controlled conditions
5. Experimentation - a scientific method of investigation that makes possible use of
all senses to measure or obtain outcomes
 𝐂𝐋𝐀𝐒𝐒𝐈𝐅𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐒𝐎𝐅 𝐕𝐀𝐑𝐈𝐀𝐁𝐋𝐄𝐒 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐃𝐀𝐓𝐀
Variables that are
A
notvariable is any
measurement
characteristics,
variables. Their Variables whose
number,
values door not values result
quantity that
result from from counting or
can be
measuring or measuring
measured
counting or something
counted. A
variable may
also be called a
data item.
DISCRETE QUANTITATIVE DATA CONTINUOUS QUANTITATIVE DATA

• can only take specific numeric values • take any value in an interval

• number of needle punctures, • body mass, height, blood pressure and

number of pregnancies and cholesterol
number of hospitalizations • Age, height
• Countable data
A student may be 1.6321748755 … metres tall
AGE: 22 years, 10 months, 23 days, …hours…minutes

A student may be 1.63 metres tall

AGE: 22 years
AGE: 274 months
Primary sources provide
raw information and first-
hand evidence. Examples
include interview
transcripts, statistical
data, and works of art. A
primary source gives you
direct access to the
subject of your research.
Nominal • classifies qualitative data into two or more categories
Variables • the lowest level of measurement
• describes a name, label or category without natural order
• Ex: country, gender, race, hair color etc

• Ranks, orders, scales

Ordinal
• First, Second, Third…
Variables
• Very satisfied, Satisfied, Indifferent, Dissatisfied, Very Dissatisfied

Interval • measured along a scale, in which each point is placed at equal distance from one
Variables another.
• Interval data always appears in the form of numbers or numerical values where the
distance between the two points is standardized and equal and there is no true zero
• temperature (in Celsius or Fahrenheit), mark grading, IQ test and CGPA.

• Has a true meaningful zero

Ratio
• has all the properties of an interval variable,
Variables
and also has a clear definition of 0.0
• the highest level of measurement
• Temperature (Kelvin), weight
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

• Population
- is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals
with specified class or characteristics under consideration.
- A capital letter “N” is used to denote population size.

• Sample
- is a finite or limited collection of objects, events or individuals
selected from a population.
- A small letter “n” denotes sample size.
 THE CHART SHOWS THE FOLLOWING SYMBOLS THAT
DENOTE SOME STATISTICAL TOOLS TO AVOID CONFUSION
IN THEIR USAGE.
Parameter Statistics
 
(Population) (Sample)
Size N n
Mean μ
Standard Deviation s
Variance 2
s2
Correlation
r
coefficient
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

A. Random Sampling B. Non – Random Sampling

• Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling • Judgement or Purposive Sampling
• Sampling with the use of Tables of • Quota Sampling
Random Numbers • Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Incident Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Simple Stratified Random Sampling
• Stratified Proportional Random
Sampling
• Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling
 RANDOM SAMPLING

A. Random Sampling - most commonly used sampling technique in

which each member in the population is given
an equal chance of being selected in the sample
a. Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling
- writing the names or numbers of all the members of the population
in small rolled pieces of paper which are later placed in a container
b. Sampling with the use of Tables of Random Numbers
- the use of Table of Random Numbers which contains rows and
columns of digits randomly ordered by a computer
 RANDOM SAMPLING

c. Systematic Sampling
- done by taking every kth element in the population. It applies to a
group of individuals arranged in a waiting line or in methodical manner.
d. Stratified Random Sampling
- when the population can be partitioned into several strata or
subgroups.
- Random samples will be selected from each stratum.
e. Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling
- This technique uses several stages or phrases in getting the
sample from the population.
- However, selection of the sample is still done at random.
 NO N- RANDOM SAMP LING

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
- method of collecting a small portion of the population by which not all the
members in the population are given the chance to be included in the sample.

a. Judgement or Purposive Sampling

- A purposive sample is a non-probability sample that is selected based on
characteristics of a population and the objective of the study.

b. Quota Sampling
- relatively quick and inexpensive method since the choice of the number of
persons or elements to be included in a sample is done at the researcher’s own
convenience
 NON- RANDOM SAMPLING

c. Cluster Sampling
- referred to as area sampling because it is usually applied on a geographical
basis
- The population is grouped into cluster or small units, e.g., blocks or districts, in
the city or municipality

d. Incident Sampling
- applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available
e. Convenience Sampling
- involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is
close to hand. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot
testing
 PRESENTATION AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

A. Textual
- this form of presentation combines text and numerical facts in a statistical report.
B. Tabular
- this form of presentation is better than textual form because it provides numerical facts in a
more concise and systematic manner. Statistical tables are constructed to facilitate the analysis of
relationship.

C. Graphical Presentation

- this form is the most effective means of organizing and presenting

statistical data because the important relationship are brought out more
clearly and creatively in virtually solid and colorful figure
 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA

A frequency distribution table is an arrangement of raw data into class intervals

and frequency.
Table 1 Table 2
EDUCATIONAL FREQUENCY NUMBER OF FREQUENCY
HOURS SPENT
ATTAINMENT
STUDYING
Undergraduate 5 0.5 – 1.0 4

Bachelor’s Degree 20 1.5 – 2.0 8

Master’s Degree 15 2.5 – 3.0 5

Doctorate Degree 10 3.5 – 4.0 3

EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40 students. Make
frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

1. Determine the lowest and highest values and calculate for the range. The range is the
difference between the lowest and highest values.
Range = highest value – lowest value
Range = 90 – 55
Range = 35
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40 students. Make
frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.

58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

2. Calculate the class width by getting the ratio of the range and the number of class
intervals. Round-up the obtained value.
Class Width =
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40 students. Make
frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.

58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

3. Start the frequency distribution table with the lowest value and add the class width
repeatedly to obtain the lowest limits of the class intervals.

CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 –
62 –
69 –
76 –
83 –
90 –
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40 students. Make
frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.

58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

4. Since class intervals cannot overlap, obtain the upper limits of each class intervals

CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 – 61
62 – 68
69 – 75
76 – 82
83 – 89
90 – 96
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40 students. Make
frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.

58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

5. Count how many of the values fall within each of the class intervals

CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 – 61 6
62 – 68 6
69 – 75 4
76 – 82 12
83 – 89
11
90 – 96
1
 FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

𝐓𝐄𝐗𝐓𝐔𝐀𝐋

𝐓𝐀𝐁𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐑

𝐆𝐑𝐀𝐏𝐇𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐋
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Bar Graph
- consists of bars or rectangles of equal widths, either drawn vertically or horizontally, segmented or non-
segmented
- done by drawing rectangles with length proportional to the frequencies of observed items or magnitude
of classes under study
- Two or more kinds of information can be compared by showing them in multiple bar graphs, each of
which is shaded with different colors to give distinctions of each.
- describing frequency is the main objective of bar graphs.
40
35
35
30
25
20
20
15
10
5
0

Male Female
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Circle Graph or Pie Graph

- represents relationships of the different components of a single total as revealed in the sectors of a circle
- The angles of size of the sectors should be proportional to the percentage components of the data which
give a total of 100%. Colors, legends, and cross hatching will be useful in identifying each component.

MOST VISITED
RELATIVE
PLACES IN
ILOCOS NORTE
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY Most Visited Places in
Windmill Farm 11 Ilocos Norte

Pagudpud Beach 29 Windmill

Farm
Sand Dunes 34 10% 11% Pagudpud
16
% Beach
29
Paoay Church 16 %
Sand Dunes
Paoay
34%
Cape Bojeador 10 Church
Cape Bo-
jeador
Total 100 100%
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Histogram
- a graph that consist of vertical, rectangular bars which represent the frequency of ranges of values.
- the rectangular bars have no gaps between them.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Line Graph
- it shows relationships between two sets of quantities
- This is done by plotting point of X set of quantities along the horizontal axis against the Y set of
quantities along the vertical axis in a Cartesian coordinate plane.
- Those plotted points will be connected by a line segment which finally forms the line graph.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Picture Graph or Pictograph

- visual presentation of statistical quantities by means of drawing pictures or symbols related to the
subject under study
- Legends are sometimes used to represent magnitude of a single unit of the picture then
repetitions of this picture are drawn to indicate differences in quantity
DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Map Graph or Cartogram

- one of the best ways to present
geographical data
- This kind of graph is always
accompanied by a legend which tells us
the meaning of the lines, colors, or the
symbols used and positioned in a map.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Scatter Point Diagram

- graphical device to show the relationship between two quantitative variables
- the plotted points for every pair of X and Y set of quantities are not connected by line segments
but are simply scattered on the Cartesian coordinate plane.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Stem-and-Leaf Plot
- another visual representation of quantitative data
- data is divided into two parts: “stem” and “leaf”.
- the stem is the first digit or digits while the leaf is the last digit of a value
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Box-and-Whisker Plot
- a graphical representation of quantitative data.
- it contains the minimum, median, maximum, lower quartile, and upper quartile.
- these values are known as the five-number summary.
- best used when data has extreme values.