DARAGA COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Salvacion, Daraga, Albay

LESSON 12

BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Prof. Abelardo B. Medes

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OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent

knowledge
2. Explain how the spiral curriculum works
3. Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning
4. Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction
5. Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning
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PRIMING ACTIVITY

Think of a topic that you have studied in your elementary years, and then
you studied it again in high school, and probably you had that same topic
again in college.
1. What was the topic?
2. Try to recall how that topic was discussed in class?
3. Describe what and how you learned about the topic during
elementary.
4. Describe what and how you learned the topic during high school.
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ANALYSIS
1.Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the
different levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details
given etc.)

2. Why do you think the same topic was taught in the two (2)
different levels?
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Jerome Bruner was one of the most influential constructivists. He

was influenced by Piaget’s ideas about cognitive development in
children. His ideas have been widely discussed among educators
and teachers. Some of Bruner’s theoretical principles focus on
these ideas:

• Nature of Learning and learning process.

• Instructional scaffolding
• The intellectual development of the learner
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Bruner gave important concepts in development of:

• Representation
• Spiral Curriculum
• Discovery Learning
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Representation

Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:

Enactive representation (action-based)

Iconic representation (image-based)
Symbolic representation (language-based)
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https://www.google.com/search?
q=bruners+modes+of+representation&tbm=
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https://www.google.com/search?
q=bruners+modes+of+representation&tbm=
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https://www.google.com/search?
q=bruners+modes+of+representation&tbm=
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Spiral Curriculum

Spiral curriculum, refers to a curriculum design in which key concepts

are presented repeatedly throughout the curriculum, but with
deepening layers of complexity, or in different applications.

Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in

different ways depending on students’ developmental levels
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Salvacion, Daraga, Albay

KEY LEARNING POINTS

Spiral Curriculum
Key features of the spiral curriculum based on Bruner's work are: (1) The
student revisits a topic, theme or subject several times throughout their
school career; (2) The complexity of the topic or theme increases with
each revisit; and (3) New learning has a relationship with old learning
and is put in context with the old information.
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

In the K to 12 Curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section 5

(g) Curriculum Development of R.A. 10533, states that, “The curriculum
shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge
and skills after each level.” As applied in Math, this would mean that
teachers teach Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts
from Kinder to Grade 10. In Science, Biology, Chemistry and Physics
concepts are taught from Grade 3 to Grade 10 considering the
developmental stages of the students.
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

In the spiral progression approach, the teaching of concepts increase in depth

and breadth across the grade levels. Statistics concepts in Kindergarten is
much simpler compared to the statistics concepts in Grade 10. Geometry
concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler than those taught in Grade 10.
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Principles of Instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that

make the student willing and be able to learn (readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps (going beyond the information given.
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KEY LEARNING POINTS

Discovery Learning
 is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory. Real life scenarios
are given to the learner where they face the challenge of solving these
problems on their own. The learner uses what they know as well as
previous experiences to draw upon conclusions for solving and
learning.
 The learner uses what they know as well as previous experiences to draw
upon conclusions for solving and learning. The learner interacts with the
world around them all the while exploring and questioning during
experimentation and the use of trial and error. It involves Inquiry-based
learning as well as constructivism.
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The 5 Principles of Discovery Learning Model

The Discovery Learning Model integrates the following 5 principles:
Principle 1: Problem Solving.
Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining
existing and newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way, learners
are the driving force behind learning, take an active role and establish broader
applications for skills through activities that encourage risks, problem-solving and
probing.

Principle 2: Learner Management.

Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at
their own pace. This flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing
of lessons and activities, relieves learners from unnecessary stress, and makes them feel
their own learning.
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Principle 3: Integrating and Connecting.

Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and
encourage them to connect to the real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis of
new information, encouraging learners to extend what they know and invent
something new.
Principle 4: Information Analysis and Interpretation.
Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the
assumption that learning is not a mere set of facts. Learners in fact learn to analyze and
interpret the acquired information, rather than memorize the correct answer.
Principle 5: Failure and Feedback.
Learning doesn’t only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through
failure. Discovery learning does not focus on finding the right end result, but the new
things we discover in the process. And it’s the instructor’s responsibility to provide
feedback, since without it learning is incomplete.
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The term “Guided Discovery” refers to a teaching and learning

environment where students are actively participating in discovering
knowledge
The pedagogical underpinning is that if the students discover the knowledge,
they will, in the process, have created and added to their own scaffolded
understanding

https://openlearning.mit.edu/events/guided-discovery-
teaching-method#:
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Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the
vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed
to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content,
PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-
solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide
opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research
materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
https://citl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-learning/
resources/teaching-strategies/problem-based-learning-
(pbl)
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Four features of Bruner's theory of instruction

1. Predisposition to learn.... This feature specifically states the

experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general,
or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and
personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and
early teachers and parents' influence on this. He believed learning and
problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher
is to maintain and direct a child's spontaneous explorations.
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2. Structure of knowledge....it is possible to structure knowledge in a way that

enables the learner to most readily grasp the information. This is a relative feature, as
there are many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among
learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge.

Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible.

Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of
knowledge. (See the section on categorization.)
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3. Modes of representation: visual, words, symbols.

4. Effective sequencing- no one sequencing will fit every

learner, but in general, increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack
of it, can make learning easier or more difficult.
5. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be
selected and paced appropriately. He investigated motivation for
learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the
best stimulus for learning.
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Categorization:

Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the

construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception,
conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making inferences all
involved categorization.

Bruner suggested a system of coding in which people form a hierarchical

arrangement of related categories. Each successively higher level of
categories becomes more specific, echoing Benjamin Bloom's
understanding of knowledge acquisition as well as the related idea of
instructional scaffolding (Bloom's Taxonomy).
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Categories are "rules" that specify four thing about objects.

1. Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

(Example, for an object to be included in the category "car" it must have an engine, 4
wheels, and be a possible means of transportation,

2. The second rule prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.

3. The third rule assignees weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even
if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different
category of "truck" or perhaps "van".

4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely,
such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car.
Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in "car"
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There a several kinds of categories:

Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes
or features.
Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories.
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related
functions (for example, "car", "truck", "van" could all be combined in an
inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria, for
example by science, law, or cultural agreement. For example, and apple is
still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food
(functional), and it is a member of of a botanical classification group
(formal).
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Coding systems are categories serve to recognize sensory input. They are
major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going
beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis
of related categories. Related categories form a "coding system." These are
hierarchical arrangements of related categories.

Bruner's theories introduced the idea that people interpret the world
largely in terms of similarities and differences.
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CONSTRUCTIVISM:
KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION/CONCEPT LEARNING
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WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people
actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is
determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p.
256).

In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998) states that

constructivism believes in personal construction of meaning by the
learner through experience, and that meaning is influenced by the
interaction of prior knowledge and new events.
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TWO VIEWS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Individual Constructivism. This is called cognitive constructivism. It
emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. Largely based
on Piaget’s theory, which is child-centered and discovery learning.

Social Constructivism. This emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a

social context and is initially shared with others instead of being
represented solely in the mind of an individual. It is based on Vygotsky’s
theory. Here construction of knowledge is shared by two or more people.
Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM ( EGGEN AND KAUCHAK)

1. Learners construct understanding.

2. New learning depends on current understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.
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Organizing Knowledge

Concept – is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our

mind. A concept of “teach” includes a group of tasks such as model,
discuss, illustrate, explain, assist, etc.

Concepts as Feature Lists – learning a concept involves learning specific

features that characterize positive instance of the concept.
Defining Feature – is a characteristic present in all instances.
Correlational Feature – is one that is present in many positive instances
but not essential for concept membership.
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Concepts as Prototypes – a prototype is an idea or a visual image of a

“typical” example. It is usually formed based on the positive
instances that learners encounter most often.

Concepts as Exemplars – exemplars represent a variety of examples

where it allows learners to know that an example under a concept
may have variability.
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Making Concept-learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help

students learn concepts by doing the following:
-Provide a clear definition of the concept
-Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
-Give a variety of positive instances
-Give negative instances
-Cite a “best example” or a prototype
-Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative
instances
-Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
-Point out how concepts can be related to each other
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Schemas and scripts

Schema – is an organized body of knowledge about something or it is like a
file of information you hold in your mind about something.
Script – is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a
specific activity.
Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning
– Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner,
rather than taking up so many topics superficially.
– Give varied examples
– Provide opportunities for quality interaction
– Have a lots of hands-on activities
– Relate your topic to real life situations
– Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.
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ASSESSMENT TASK (FOR INCLUSION IN THE SHOWCASE PORTFOLIO)

1. Explain how spiral curriculum works.

2. Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.
3. Describe the strategies to promote knowledge construction.
4. Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.
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REFLECTION WRITING (FOR INCLUSION IN THE SHOWCASE PORTFOLIO)

From the lessons on Bruner’s Constructivist Theory, and Constructivism,

1. What did you realize?

2. What are your thoughts of what you have read and experienced?
3. What did you understand about the material? How does this affect
your ideas?
4. How possible that these ideas are practiced in the future? Cite
examples.
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INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY (FOR SUBMISSION)

A. Brunner’s Constructivist Theory
1. Choose a topic with a particular lesson objective in any grade or year level.
2.Write a simple plan on how to teach this topic using Bruner’s principles
Topic: ___________________________________
Objective: ________________________________
Grade/Year Level: __________________________
3. How will you present the topic on the
Stages to Present the Topic Activities to Facilitate Learning
Enactive Level
Iconic Level
.
Symbolic Level
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INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY (FOR SUBMISSION)

4. How will you apply the spiral curriculum approach in this topic?
5. Describe how you can use discovery learning for this topic.

.
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INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY (FOR SUBMISSION)

B. Constructivism
1.Think of a topic in a particular subject area in the elementary grades.
2. Indicate how you can apply constructivism for your students to
construct their own understanding of the topic. The first one is
partially done for you.
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Topic: ________________________ Grade Level: _____________

Constructivist Implications What will I do to teach the topic?

Have a few ideas

Give varied examples
Provide opportunities for experimentation
Provide lots of opportunities for quality
interaction
Have lots of hands-on activities
Relate your topic to real life situation
Do not depend on the explanation method all
the time.
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Thank you!