UNIT I –

PRELIMINARY
CONCEPTS & RECENT
TRENDS
Lesson 2
Common terminologies
Measurement
Measurement is the process of associating numbers with
physical quantities and phenomena. Measurement is fundamental
to the sciences; to engineering, construction, and other technical
fields; and to almost all everyday activities. For that reason, the
elements, conditions, limitations, and theoretical foundations of
measurement have been much studied.
Measurement
The word measurement, as it applies to education, is not substantially
different from when it is used in any other field. It simply means
determining the attributes or dimensions of an object, skill or
knowledge. We use common objects in the physical world to measure,
such as tape measures, scales and meters. These measurement tools are
held to standards and can be used to obtain reliable results.
 MEASUREMENT
When used properly, they accurately gather
data for educators and administrators. Some
standard measurements in education are raw
scores, percentile ranks and standard scores.
 MEASUREMENT
Measurement as used in education is the quantification of
what students learned through the use of tests, questionnaires,
rating scales, checklists, and other devices. A teacher, for
example, who gave his class a 10-item quiz after a lesson on
the agreement of subject and verb is undertaking
measurement of what was learned by the students on that
particular lesson . Furthermore, measurements answers the
question how much does a student learn or know? (Garcia,
2013).
 MEASUREMENT
According to Navarro, et. al., measurement can be
objective (as in testing) or subjective (as in perception).
Testing produces objective measurements while expert’s
ratings provide subjective measurement. Objective
measurements are more stable than subjective
measurements in the sense that repeated measurements of
the same quantity or quality of interest will produce more
or less same outcome.
 MEASUREMENT
However, there are certain facets of the
quantity or quality of interests that cannot be
successfully captured by objective procedures
but which can be done by subjective methods,
e.g. aesthetic appeal of a product or project of a
student, student’s performance in a drama, etc.
 MEASUREMENT
Thorndike and Hagen (1986) define measurement as “the process
of quantifying observations and/or descriptions about a quality or
attribute of a thing or a person”. The process of measurement
involves three steps:
■ a. Identifying and defining the quality or attribute that is to be
measured;
■ b. Determining a set of operations by which the attribute may be
made manifest and perceivable; and
■ c. Establishing a set of procedures or definitions for translating
observations into quantitative statement of degree or amount.
 MEASUREMENT
Test is used to gather information. That
information is presented in the form of measurement.
That measurement is then used to make evaluation. It
is the process of obtaining a numerical description of
the degree to which an individual possesses a
particular characteristic. Measurement answers the
question, “How much?”
 MEASUREMENT
Uses of Educational Measurement (Mehrens and Lehmann,
1991)
1. Direct Instructional Decisions. Observing, measuring,
and drawing conclusions are ongoing activities in most
classrooms. Teachers not only test students to see what
they have learned (diagnosing), but they also observe
the learning process.
2. Instructional Management Decisions. Classifications and
placement decisions or counseling and guidance
decisions.
 MEASUREMENT
2. Instructional Management Decisions. Classifications
and placement decisions or counseling and guidance
decisions.
3. Entry-Exit Decisions. Tests are used to help educators
decide who should enter particular educational institutions
or programs of study (selection decision) and who has
completed the requirements to leave that program
(certification decisions).
 MEASUREMENT
4. Program, Administrative, and Policy Decisions.
Decisions that affect educational programs, curricula,
and systems.
5. Decisions Associated with Expanding our Knowledge
Base. Testing for educational research.

Educational measurement refers to the process of

determining a quantitative or qualitative academic attribute
of an individual or group of individuals.
 TESTING
Testing is defined as the administration of test and
use of test results to determine whether the learners
can be promoted to the next grade/year level or must
be retained in the same grade/year level and will
undergo a restudy of the same lesson (Calmorin,
2011).
 TESTING
Almost everybody has experienced testing during his or
her life. Grammar tests, driving license test etc. A test is
used to examine someone’s knowledge of something to
determine what that person knows or has learned. It
measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been
reached. An evaluative device or procedure in which a
sample of an examinee’s behavior in a specified domain is
obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a
standardized process (The Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing, 1999).
 TESTING
Through testing, teachers can measure
students’ cognitive achievement, as well
their attitudes, values, feelings, and motor
skills. It is probably the most common
measurement technique employed by
teachers in the classroom.
 TESTING
Two Basic Types of Testing
1. Standardized Testing
A standardized test is any form of test that:
(1) requires all test takers to answer the same questions, or a
selection of questions from common bank of questions, in the
same way, and that
(2) is scored in a “standard” or consistent manner, which
makes it possible to compare the relative performance
of individual students or groups of students.
 TESTING
While different types of tests and assessments may
be “standardized” in this way, the term is primarily
associated with large-scale tests administered to large
populations of students, such as a multiple-choice
test given to all the eighth-grade public-school
students in a particular state, for example.
 TESTING
In addition to the familiar multiple-choice format,
standardized tests can include true-false questions, short-
answer questions, essay questions, or a mix of question
types. While standardized tests were traditionally presented
on paper and completed using pencils, and many still are,
they are increasingly being administered on computers
connected to online programs (for a related discussion, see
computer-adaptive test).
 TESTING
While standardized tests may come in a variety of forms,
multiple-choice and true-false formats are widely used for
large-scale testing situations because computers can score them
quickly, consistently, and inexpensively. In contrast, open-
ended essay questions need to be scored by humans using a
common set of guidelines or rubrics to promote consistent
evaluations from essay to essay—a less efficient and more
time-intensive and costly option that is also considered to be
more subjective.
 TESTING
(Computerized systems designed to replace human scoring are currently
being developed by a variety of companies; while these systems are still
in their infancy, they are nevertheless becoming the object of growing
national debate.)
While standardized tests are a major source of debate in the United
States, many test experts and educators consider them to be a fair and
objective method of assessing the academic achievement of students,
mainly because the standardized format, coupled with computerized
scoring, reduces the potential for favoritism, bias, or subjective
evaluations.
 TESTING
On the other hand, subjective human judgment enters into the
testing process at various stages—e.g., in the selection and
presentation of questions, or in the subject matter and phrasing
of both questions and answers. Subjectivity also enters into the
process when test developers set passing scores—a decision that
can affect how many students pass or fail, or how many achieve
a level of performance considered to be “proficient” level of
performance. Standardized tests have a wide range of
applications in education.
 TESTING
They may be used to determine a young child's
kindergarten readiness, identify students who
require special education or specialized academic
support, place students in different academic
programs or course levels, or award diplomas
and other educational certificates, for example.
 TESTING
The following are a few representative examples of the most common
forms of standardized test:
 Achievement tests are used to assess students' learning in school and
to track their academic progress over time. The tests can also be used to
assess the effectiveness of schools and teachers, as well as to determine
a student's appropriate academic placement—that is, which courses or
programs are best for them, and what types of academic support they
require. In that they assess how well students have learned what was
expected of them, achievement tests are "backward-looking."
 TESTING
 Aptitude tests, for example, evaluate mathematical ability,
language competence, abstract reasoning, motor coordination,
and musical talent in order to forecast a student's ability to
succeed in an intellectual or physical effort. Aptitude tests are
"forward-looking" in the sense that they are designed to
anticipate or predict how well pupils will do in a future
educational or job context. Many people question the
predictive accuracy and value of aptitude tests, therefore they
are frequently a topic of discussion.
 TESTING
 College entrance exams are used to determine which
students will be admitted to a post-secondary program.
While there is much debate about the accuracy and
utility of college admissions tests, and many institutions
of higher education no longer require them, they are still
used as indicators of intellectual and academic potential,
and some may consider them predictive of how well an
applicant will do in a post-secondary program.
 TESTING
 International-comparison tests are given to representative
samples of students in a number of nations, including the
United States, on a regular basis in order to track
accomplishment trends in specific countries and compare
educational performance between them. The Programme for
International Student Assessment (PISA), the Progress in
International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), and the Trends
in International Mathematics and Science Study are all
examples of international comparison tests (TIMSS).
 TESTING
Psychological tests, including IQ tests, are used to assess a
person's cognitive ability, as well as their mental, emotional,
developmental, and social traits. The tests are typically
administered by trained professionals, such as school
psychologists, and may require students to complete a series
of tasks or solve a set of problems. Psychological assessments
are frequently used to identify students who have learning
impairments or other special needs that require specialized
care.
 High stakes TESTING
A high-stakes test is any test used to make important decisions about
students, educators, schools, or districts, most commonly for the
purpose of accountability—that is, federal, state, or local government
agencies and school administrators attempting to ensure that students
are enrolled in effective schools and taught by effective teachers. Test
scores are used to decide punishments (such as sanctions, penalties,
budget reductions, unfavorable publicity), honors (awards, public
celebrations, positive publicity), progress (grade promotion or
graduation for students), or remuneration (salary increases or bonuses
for administrators and teachers).
 High stakes vs. LOW STAKES
A "low-stakes test" would be used to, among other things, measure
academic achievement, detect learning issues, and influence instructional
improvements. The function, not the form (how the exam is structured), is
what distinguishes a high-stakes test from a low-stakes test (how the results
are used). If test results are used to decide a significant consequence, such as
whether a student earns a high school diploma, the test is called high-stakes,
regardless of whether it is a multiple-choice, oral, or essay exam. Low-stakes
assessments usually have no substantial or public consequences—the results
usually matter far more to a single teacher or student than to anybody else—
and scores aren't used to burnish or damage the reputation of teachers or
schools.
 High stakes vs. LOW STAKES
While high-stakes tests come in many forms and may be used for a wide variety of
purposes, the following provides a brief overview of a few representative applications
of high-stakes testing:
Students: Students' test scores may be used to determine whether they progress to the
next grade level or get a diploma. To progress from third to fourth grade, for example,
a growing number of states require kids to pass a reading test, while others need
students to pass a test to graduate from high school.
Educators: The outcomes of the tests may be utilized in teacher evaluations or in
determining professional compensation. In recent years, for example, a growing
number of school reformers, elected officials, and policymakers have called for
teacher pay (including bonuses), as well as hiring, firing, and tenure decisions, to be
based in part on student test scores.
 evaluation
The verb evaluate means to form an idea of something or to give a judgment about
something. The term comes from the French word 'évaluer,' meaning "to find the
value of." The origin is from the Latin term 'valere', meaning "be strong, be well; be
of value, or be worth."
In the educational context, the verb ‘to evaluate’ often collocates with terms such
as:
 the effectiveness of an educational system,
 a program,
 a course,
 instruction,
 a curriculum.
 evaluation
Evaluation, according to Weiss (1972), is the methodical
collecting of data for the goal of making decisions. It is not
concerned with evaluating an individual's performance, but
rather with establishing an impression of the curriculum and
making a judgment about it. This decision is based on a set of
criteria and evidence. The goal is to determine the value of
education, a course, or even the entire curriculum. As a result,
evaluation is broader and may involve an examination of all
components of the educational system.
 evaluation
Educational evaluation is the activity of describing and appraising some
component or aspects of an educational process, while evaluation is the process
of summing up the outcomes of measurements or tests and assigning them some
meaning based on value judgment (Hopkins and Stanley, 1981). It is the process
of determining the merit, worth, and significance of something or someone by
comparing criteria to a set of criteria. Teachers can interpret evidence of
learning, make judgments, and assign value to the results gathered through
assessment in the form of a score or grade for reporting purposes through the
evaluation process. Evaluation reports are necessary if a photograph of the
student is required. In educational evaluation, there are two common goals that
are sometimes at odds with one another.
 evaluation
Typically, educational institutions require the following
evaluation data:
 to demonstrate effectiveness; and
to provide a measure of performance for marketing
purposes.
Evaluation is concerned with making judgments on the
worth or value of the performance; it answers the question,
how good, adequate, or desirable is it?
 evaluation
Types of Evaluation
A teacher needs continuous feedback in order to plan, monitor, and evaluate
their instruction. Obtaining this feedback may take any of the following types:
diagnostic, formative, and summative.
Prior to instruction, a diagnostic examination is usually conducted to check
pupils' prior knowledge of a topic or lesson. Its goal is to predict probable
learning issues and place students in the appropriate course or unit of study. This
sort of examination includes the placement of some elementary school pupils in
special reading programs based on a reading comprehension test. Another
example is requiring entering college freshman to enroll in Math Plus based on
the results of their mathematics entrance exam.
 evaluation
Types of Evaluation
Because it is designed to verify students' competence levels in
particular areas so that instructional beginning points can be
determined, diagnostic evaluation is also known as pre-assessment.
Teachers can gain significant information about students' knowledge,
attitudes, and skills when they first begin learning a subject through
this type of assessment, which can then be used to guide remediation
or special instruction. Teacher-made tests, standardized tests, and
observational techniques can all be used in diagnostic evaluations.
 evaluation
Types of Evaluation
Formative evaluation is used during the educational process to give students
and teachers feedback on how well they are learning the lesson being taught.
Teachers might adjust their instruction based on the findings of this form of
evaluation. Remedial work is usually done to correct any weaknesses that have
been identified and to bring slow learners up to the same level as their
classmates or peers. Formative evaluation essentially asks, "How are my
students doing?" Pretests, homework, seatwork, and classroom questions are
all used. The formative evaluation results are not recorded or assessed; instead,
they are utilized to adapt or amend instruction.
 evaluation
Types of Evaluation
For grading purposes, summative evaluation is used to
determine student achievement. Teachers use grades to justify
passing or failing students based on a variety of cumulative
behaviors, skills, and knowledge. The accomplishments of
students during a particular marking term are summarized or
summed up in this type of evaluation. It's often based on
cognitive knowledge, as evidenced by test results and written
outputs.
 evaluation
Types of Evaluation
Examples of summative evaluation are chapter tests,
homework grades, completed project grades, periodical
tests, unit tests, and achievement tests. This type of
evaluation answers the question, "how did my students
fare?” Results of summative evaluation can be utilized not
only for judging student achievement but also for judging
the effectiveness of the teacher and the curriculum.
 evaluation
Approaches to Education
According to Escarilla and Gonzales (1990), there are two approaches to
evaluation, namely: norm-referenced and criterion-referenced.
A norm-referenced evaluation is one in which a student's performance
on a test is compared to the performance of other students who took the
same exam. Examples of norm-referenced evaluation are as follows:
1.Karl’s score in the periodical examination is below the mean.
2.Cynthia ranked fifth in the unit test in Physics.
3.Rey’s percentile rank in the Math achievement test is 88.
 evaluation
Approaches to Education
Criterion-referenced evaluation, on the other hand, is an
approach to evaluation wherein a student’s performance is
compared against a predetermined or agreed-upon standard.
Examples of this approach are as follows:
1.Sid can construct a pie graph with 76% accuracy.
2.Yves scored 7 out of 10 on the spelling test.
3.Lito can encode an article with no more than 5 errors in
spelling.
 Basic Guidelines in Educational Assessment, Measurement,
and Evaluation
Learners must have answers to certain questions, such as: where am I
going?, in order for any learning activity to be successful. How will I
know when I arrive? These are common concerns when assessing and
evaluating educational outcomes. Teachers must constantly analyze and
alter plans as situations demand. The principles of educational assessment,
measurement, and evaluation are as follows (Clark & Starr, 1997):
1.Teachers need to know how much they are doing;
2.Students need to know how well they are doing;
3.Evidence, feedback, and input data for knowing how well the students
and teachers are doing should come from a variety of sources;
 Basic Guidelines in Educational Assessment, Measurement,
and Evaluation
4. Evaluation is a continuing process to check on programs and
modify/adopt strategies to promote desired behavior;
5. The procedures used for assessing student learning must be compatible
with instructional objectives;
6. The evaluation process should facilitate teaching effectiveness and
contribute to the intellectual and emotional growth of the learners.
7. Evaluation is a reciprocal process. It involves the evaluation of teacher
performance, as well as that of student achievement; and
8. A teacher’s responsibility is to facilitate student learning and is
accountable for it.
 Types and Distinctions of Tests

The most important aspect of student evaluation in most classrooms involves the tests teachers make
and administer to their students (Gronlund& Linn, 1990). Teachers, therefore, need to understand
the different types of tests and their uses in the assessment and evaluation of students’ learning.
A test is a systematic procedure for measuring an individual’s behavior (Brown, 1991). This
definition implies that it has to be developed following specific guidelines. It is a formal and
systematic way of gathering information about the learners' behavior, usually through a paper-and-
pencil procedure (Airisian, 1989).
Through testing, teachers can measure students’ acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values in any
learning area in the curriculum. While testing is the most common measurement technique teachers
use in the classroom, there are certain limitations to their use. As pointed out by Moore (1992), tests
cannot measure student motivation, physical limitations, and even environmental factors. The
foregoing indicates that testing is only one of the techniques teachers can employ in gathering
information about the students' learning achievement.
 Types and Distinctions of Tests

Tests serve a lot of functions for school administrators, supervisors, teachers, and parents, as
well (Arends, 1994; Escarilla& Gonzales, 1990).
School administrators utilize test results for making decisions regarding the promotion or
retention of students, improvement or enrichment of the curriculum, and conduct of staff
development programs for teachers. Through test results, school administrators can also have a
clear picture of the extent to which the objectives of the school's instructional program are
achieved.
Supervisors use test results in discovering learning areas needing special attention and identify
teachers' weaknesses and learning competencies not mastered by the students. Test results can also
provide supervisors with baseline data on curriculum revision.
Teachers, on the other hand, utilize test for numerous purposes. Through testing, teachers are
able to - gather information about the effectiveness of instruction; give feedback to students about
their progress, and assign grades.
 Types and Distinctions of Tests
Parents, too, derive benefits from tests administered to their children. Through test scores, they are able to
determine how well their sons and daughters are faring in school and how well the school is doing its share
in educating their children.
Numerous types of test are used in school. There are different ways of categorizing tests, namely: ease of
qualification of response, mode of preparation, mode of administration, test constructor, mode of
interpreting results, and nature of the response (Manarang&Manarang, 1983; Louisell& Descamps, 1992).
As to the mode of response, tests can be
1.Oral test - It is a test wherein the test taker gives his answer orally.
2.Written test - It is a test where answers to questions are written by the test taker.
3.Performance test - It is one in which test taker creates an answer or a product that demonstrates his
knowledge or skill, as in cooking and baking.
As to ease of quantification of response, tests can either be
1.Objective test - It is a paper and pencil test wherein students’ answers can be compared and quantified to
yield a numerical score. This is because it requires a convergent or specific response.
Subjective test - It is a paper and pencil test that is not easily quantified as students are given the freedom to
write their answer to a question, such as an essay test. Thus, the answer to this type of test is divergent.
 Types and Distinctions of Tests

Parents, too, derive benefits from tests administered to their children. Through test
scores, they are able to determine how well their sons and daughters are faring in
school and how well the school is doing its share in educating their children.
Numerous types of test are used in school. There are different ways of categorizing
tests, namely: ease of qualification of response, mode of preparation, mode of
administration, test constructor, mode of interpreting results, and nature of the
response (Manarang&Manarang, 1983; Louisell& Descamps, 1992).
As to the mode of response, tests can be
1. Oral test - It is a test wherein the test taker gives his answer orally.
2. Written test - It is a test where answers to questions are written by the test
taker.
3. Performance test - It is one in which test taker creates an answer or a product
that demonstrates his knowledge or skill, as in cooking and baking.