Intellectual Revolution

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996)

• The Man who changed the Way the World looked at
Science (Scientific Revolution – paradigm shifts)

• Physicist from Harvard, Berkeley, Princeton, Cambridge

 Karl Popper (1902-1994)
“Science may be described as the art of
systematic oversimplification.”

A Great Contemporary Philosopher (20th Century)

 Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the paradigm shifts in history
(three examples –Copernicus, Darwin and Freud)
Thomas Kuhn (1962) Structure of Scientific
Revolutions – paradigm shift (5th in the
cycle/process/development)
2. Explain how the Intellectual Revolution changed
the way humans see the world
3. Describe the technological advancements that
happened in the information age (but Why?)
 Intellectual Revolution (Basics)
• Intellectual Revolution aka Scientific Revolution (Thomas
Kuhn 1962) of theories/models=paradigm
• Intellect means mind and knowledge (reasoning and
understanding)
• The Foundation of Science (& Technology)
In the first part, we will be dealing mostly with history and
philosophy (epistemology)
• Intellectualism started when human knowledge begun to be
disseminated (papyrus, writing on the walls, printing press)
– published materials, books, journals and the media=
information age
 Kuhn’s Cycle (Structure of Scientific Revolutions )

Pre-science – In the beginning, there is no workable paradigm

(model) to successfully guide the work in a particular field.
(Philosophy, History and S&T discoveries and development)
1. Normal Science - The normal step, where the field has a
scientifically based model of understanding (a paradigm) that
works. (positivist)

2. Model Drift - The model of understanding starts to drift, due

to accumulation of anomalies/controversies, phenomenon the
model cannot explain.
 History and Philosophy
• Ancient times - Greek and Roman Civilizations
Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Galen, Theophrastus
(Pre-historic times?)
• How about The Far East? – China, India, Japan,
Korea
(Different Languages and religion)
Other parts – Mesopotamia, Africa, Aztecs
3. Model Crisis - The Model Drift/Anomalies become so excessive the model
is broken. It can no longer serve as a reliable guide to problem solving.
Attempts to patch the model up to make it work fail. The field is in anguish.

4. Model Revolution – Revolution begins when serious candidates for a new

model emerge. It's a revolution because the new model is so radically
different from the old one.

5. Paradigm Change/Shift - A single new paradigm emerges and the field

changes from the old to the new paradigm. When this step ends the new
paradigm becomes the new Normal Science and the Kuhn Cycle is completel
 Copernican Revolution
• In the early days people questioned the
creation of days and nights-(the most
common observable change and one cause for
evolution to happen)
• Also, they wanted to understand heavenly
bodies like stars, moon, and planets and their
movements
 Copernican Revolution
• Many Greek philosophers and intellectuals
wrote about planets in an attempt to explain
the movement of heavenly bodies and their
effects on the world as they knew it –Aristotle.
• Many of these philosophers agreed that
planets moved around a circular motion and
these movements created day and night.
 Copernican Revolution
• A famous Greco-Roman philosopher and
astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 AD),
wrote that the planets as well as the sun and the
moon moved in a circular motion around the
earth. He believed that the earth was at the
center– a concept known as geocentrism.
Ptolemy’s geocentric model was widely accepted
by the people (ca 2nd to 16th century) and was
one of the greatest discoveries of that time.
 Copernican Revolution
• In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-
1543), a Polish mathematician and
astronomer challenged the Ptolemic model.
• He introduced a new concept known as
heliocentricism which suggested that the
center of the Solar System was not the Earth
but actually the sun. This idea was rejected at
first by the public. (Tycho Brahe)
 Copernican Revolution
• It appalled many since their religious belief
had taught them that the Earth was created
first before all other things.
• Copernicus was even persecuted as a heretic.
• After some time, astronomers realized that
the Copernicus model simplified the orbits of
the planets ie. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
 Copernican Revolution
• It also answered issues that could not be
explained using the geocentric model.
• Other works that supported this model started
to emerged as well (Galileo and his powerful
telecope)
• It was eventually accepted by the people in a
period which was called the birth of modern
astronomy. This resulted in the transformation
of a society’s thoughts and beliefs.
Why were intellectual ideas controversial?
• 1. incomplete emperical observations/some phenomenon
cannot provide generalization (difficulty in inductive-
deductive reasoning )- remains theoretical
• 2. intellectuals/philosophers and mathematicians try to
debate on theories
• 3. religious acceptance, beliefs/intellectual society-popular
perceptions/consensus
• 4. technological breakthrough/scientist/inventors
• 5. although no direct economic importance but tremendous
impact on beliefs and way of life because the issue is the
world itself/man itself (Copernican, Freudian)
 Darwinian Revolution
• Most controversial intellectual revolution
• In 1859, Charles Darwin, an English naturalist,
biologist, published his book, On the Origin of
the Species.
• Darwin introduced the theory of evolution
which pointed that populations pass through a
process of natural selection in which only the
fittest survive.
 Darwinian Revolution
• The theory became very controversial as people
perceived it to be contradictory to the church’
teaching that the source of life is a powerful
creator – Creation theory.
• Because of the conflict people were divided.
• It even sparked a massive never-ending debate
between science and religion. (Emperical science
vs
religious rationalism)
 Darwinian Revolution
• It was only after some time that people came to
understand that Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
was not in fact against the teachings of the
church and both can coexist.
• Theory of evolution is not to convince people
that humans came from apes or monkey-like
creatures!
• Rene Descartes (Rationalist) and Immanuel
Kant’s Philosophies (Pragmatism)
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
“The Pragmatist”
 Freudian Revolution
• In the late 19th century Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939) was able to change people’s perception
of psychology as a scientific endeavor with this
theory of psychoanalysis.
• In the past, the field of psychology was always
classified under philosophy (art rather than
science)
 Freudian Revolution
• Psychoanalysis is the study that explains
human behavior. Freud explained that there
are many conscious and unconscious factors
that can influence behavior and emotions.
• He also argued that personality is a product of
three conflicting elements, id, ego and super
ego.
 Freudian Revolution
• Science hardliners brushed off the legitimacy
of psychoanalysis as a science since its
concepts were philosophical and supernatural.
• Many believed that Freud’s theory had no
scientific basis as no emperical or
experimental data could support it.
 Freudian Revolution
• Despite criticisms, Freud still continue to work
on refining his theory and in fact tried to
explain how psychoanalysis can be a clinical
method in treating some mental disorders.
• Soon enough, people were able to understand
the concepts of psychoanalysis, which
eventually resulted in classifying psychology as
a science. (Weir – Elements of Biology)
 Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
“Love is the only sane and satisfactory answer to the problem of human
existence.”
 Summary 1
• Start with a model idea or theory by a
scientist-philosopher (may? or often not be
supported by emperical findings)
Copernicus – later
Darwin - Yes but incomplete
Freud - none
 Summary 2
• It requires corresponding technology or
methodology
Copernicus - powerful telescopes and
mathematical computations
Darwin – field observations
Freud – clinical observations
 Summary 3
• Obvious impact to understanding society
Copernicus – theory deals with the World
itself (no direct economic value but valuable to
navigation and geographical exploration)
Darwin – theory deals with the origin of man
itself (again no economic value but valuable to
understanding nature and adaptation!)
 Summary 4
• There are always debatable issues
There is always a process, a cycle (Kuhn)
and an eventual winner! Society has to judge it
from various debates, development and
consensus of critics and intellectual.
(Remember that religion is part of society-
Sociology)
 Why did people accept these new discoveries
despite being contradictory to what was widely
accepted at that time?

• It took some time for them to accept.

After the death of Copernicus
After the death of Darwin
After the struggles of Freud
 Why people accept?
• Main reason is that through scientific research
and experimentation people continued to
deepen their understanding of the world,
themselves, and the universe.
• The changes and development they
(intellectual revolution) brought to the
perspectives and perception of the scientific
community and the public are evidence of S&T
link to humanity!
 How do intellectual revolutions transform
societies?
• As mentioned there is already that link
between S&T and humanity because the issues
directly and obviously impact on them and
society ( the link and the
realionships/interactions)
• The great minds (intellectuals/academe)
involving the philosophers, mathematicians
and of course the emperical scientists made
possible the great revolutions
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911)
British Naturalist, Botanist
George Bentham (1800-1884)
“Genera Plantarum”
• The eventual technologies from scientific
endeavor paved the way for a better and
easier world
Final Trivia Question
Give two great inventions of all time (that which
really changed the world?)
How about the two inventions that modernized
science?
 Sputnik (Russia, 1957)
(A 23-inch Artificial Satellite)
 Historical Hindsight
• What do you think is the greatest period in
history that provided the rebirth of science
and technology?
• North – South Divide
• East vs West
 Other Scientific revolutions
• Asia – China as the oldest civilization (history
and philosophy) ie. Taoism, Buddhism, Maoist
India – Hinduism, Ayurveda
Japan – history and chinese influences
• Meso-America – Aztecs of Mexico
• Middle East – Mesopotamia (Lost World)
• Africa – European controlled, Apartheid
• Philippines?
 Other examples/paradigm shifts
• Chemistry – Lavosier vs Phlogiston Theory
• Physics – Einstein’s Relativity
• Biology – Germ Theory, Central Dogma
• Science Education - Constructivism
• Medical – Evidence-Based
 Activity (two groups)
30 minutes and 10 minute presentation
• One group will work on the positive results
brought about by innovations and
technological advances in the information age
• While the other should focus on the negative
 Activity 2
• Reflect on the presentation and come up with
ten rules or guidelines in using the different
media of information to ensure that humanity
will reap the rewards of information age.
 Quiz
• Have we experienced Scientific Revolutions in
the Philippines? Yes or No
If yes, explain how and when?
If no, explain why?