Introduction to Political Science

MODULE TWO
• What is political science?
• Political Science according to Scholars.
• Nature Of Political Science
• Approaches
• Scope / subject matter of Political science
• Is Political science a science?
• To what extend political science is science
• Conclusion.
The word Politics has its origins in
Ancient Greece. 

It comes from 3 Greek words:

Polis- City State
Polity- Government
Politeia- Constitution
 WHAT IS POLITICAL
SCIENCE?

Political science is the field of the social

sciences concerning the theory and
practice of politics and the description
and analysis of political systems and
political behaviour.
 Definitions
• Political Science is a social science discipline
concerned with the study of the state,
government, and politics.
• Aristotle defined it as the study of the state.
• It deals extensively with the theory and practice
of politics, and the analysis of political systems
and political behavior.
• Political Science is the social science concerned
chiefly with the description and analysis of
political and governmental institutions and
processes.
 Definition of Political thinkers
• Paul Janet - “Political science is that part of science which
treats of the foundations of state and the principles of
government”.
H.J Laski- “The study of politics concerns itself with the life
of man in relation to organized states”.
Lasswell- “political science is the study of shaping and sharing
of power”.
David Easton-“Political science is the study of the
authoritative allocation of values for a society”. 
Garner - “Political Science begins and ends with the state" 
Leacock - “Political Science deals with government only” 
Aristotle – “Science of polis”
Gettle – “Science of state”
 Political Science is also known
by:
•Politics
•Science of State
• Science of Government
•Science of Politics etc.
FATHER OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
 DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE
• Aristotle
– wrote “Politics”, the first systematic work on political
affairs.
– Father of Political Science
• Niccolo Machiavelli
– wrote “The Prince”, a handbook for rulers in the art of
government.
– Father of Modern Political Science
• Prof. Francis Lieber
– wrote “Manual of Political Ethics”; the first systematic
treatise in political science
 The State is the central theme of
political science.

It is the systemic study of the state, it’s

origin, it’s nature, it’s structure, government,
power, authority and so on.
In sum, the study of political
science focuses on:
 FIVE PHASES
OF DEVELOPMENT
Approaches are used to explore & explain political
situation or political event
 Nature of Political Science
• P ol i t i cal s ci en ce i s s t i l l grow i ng a nd de vel o pi ng s ubj ec t
• P ol i t i cal s ci en ce i s s t i l l grow i ng a nd de vel o pi ng s ubj ec t
•
• S o t he re i s no uni f o rm i t y am o ng po l i t i c al t hi nke rs reg ardi n g t he nat u re o f pol i t i cal s ci e nce
A ri s t o t l e, t he f at he r of p ol i t i cal s ci enc e, c ons i d ered i t as t he m as t e r s c i ence
• S om e ot her pol i t i ca l s ci e nt i s t s rej ect t he s ci ent i f i c n at ure of p ol i t i cal s ci en ce.
• S o t he re i s no uni f o rm i t y am o ngpol i t i ca l t h i nker s rega rdi ng t he nat ur e of pol i t i cal s ci en ce
• A ri s t o t l e, t he f at he r of p ol i t i cal s ci enc e, c ons i d ered i t as t he m as t e r s c i ence
• S om e ot her pol i t i ca l s ci e nt i s t s rej ect t he s ci ent i f i c n at ure of p ol i t i cal s ci en ce.
Subject matter or Scope:
Continue…….
 Functions and Importance
• To discover the principles that should be
adhered to in public affairs and to study the
operations of the government.

• Its findings can be used in seeking resolutions

to immediate situations.

• To be able to deal with social and economic

problems and other matters of public and
private concerns.
 Necessity of the Study
• Education for citizenship

• Essential part of liberal education

• Knowledge and understanding of

government
Is Political Science a
Science?
 There is a great deal of controversy
among scholars about whether Political
Science is a Science or an Art.
• Aristotle considered it as the 'master science'.
• Other modern writers like Godwin, Hobbes,
Vico, Hume, Frederick Pollock, John Seely, and
Lord Bryce consider it a science.
• On the other hand, scholar like Mosca, Burke,
Buckle, Comte, Maitland question its claim as a
science since it has failed to act up to the
standard of science.
 Science
 “A body of systematized knowledge”

 A systematically organized body of

knowledge on a particular subject.

 The intellectual and practical activity

encompassing the systematic study of the structure
and behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation and experiment.
 
Social Science

The social sciences are academic

disciplines concerned with the study
of the social life of human groups and
individuals including anthropology,
economics, geography, history,
political science,
psychology, social studies, and
Relationship between Pure Science &
Social Science
 1.Natural Science and social science are two types of
science that deal with the same scientific model and
constituents of their own respective general laws.
 2.Science is more concerned in studying nature while
social science is concerned with human behavior and
societies.
 3.Pure science is characterized by control, exactness,
rationality, controlled variables, and predictability while
social science is the opposite – it is spontaneous,
unpredictable or uncontrollable varieties, and deals with
human emotions and behavior.
 Continue……….
 4.The basis of natural science is experimental data while
social sciences rely on experiential data.

 5.The usual method of science (with respect to

experimental data) is doing repetitive and conventional
experiments in a laboratory while social science (in lieu
of experiential data) usually
involves alternative methods of observation and
interaction with people within a community.

 6.Natural or physical science work within a closed

system while social sciences work within an open system.
 Branches of Social Science

Political Science is a branch of Social Science

 Not A Science
The following arguments are advanced against
the claim of Political Science as a science.
• Lack of Consensus on Nature of Political Science
• No Certainty and Universality in the Laws of
Political Science
• No Predictability
• No Law of Cause and Effect
• Not Possible to Conduct Experiments in any
Laboratory
• No Neutrality and Objectivity
 Political Science is a Science
• Political Science can legitimately claim to be a science in so far as it
shares with the natural sciences the use of the scientific method.
• The essential features of this method are;
• (a) It takes nothing for granted;
• (b) It insists that all generalisations made be based on observed facts;
• (c) It will not accept any generalisation as final and irrevocable;
• (d) Besides a scientist, so far as humanly possible, is not swayed by
his personal preferences or subjective bias in the formulation of his
findings.
• Lord Bryce compared Political Science to a relatively underdeveloped
and inexact natural science like meteorology
• Frederick Pollock maintained that "there is a Political Science in the
same sense that there is a science of morals."
 Continue………
• Thus, when one examines the principles of
political science, one finds that these principles
have been formulated after a systematic study of
political phenomena.

• Now, if by science one means a body systematized

knowledge, then political science is, no doubt, a
science.

• It is much more scientific today than it was in the

past.
 Political Science is an Art
• An art is defined as the practical application of knowledge for the
achievement of a particular end.
• Political Science is a body of systematized knowledge which can
be applied in drafting a constitution, in day to day administration,
in legislation, in foreign policy and above all in bringing about all
round development of the state.
• Thus the knowledge of Political Science is made use of by
statesmen, diplomats, administrators, social reformers and
activists to achieve their objectives.
• The knowledge of Political Science is not merely of theoretical
value, but it has practical utility.

Political Science is both a science and an art.

 Both Science and Art:

• Aristotle was the first thinker who viewed political

science as a science. Bodin, Hobbes, Rousseau, Bryce,
Bluntschli, Garner, Leacock, etc. all accept this claim.
• Majority of the writers call it both a science and an art.
• It is an art in the sense that knows ledge of political
science is not of theoretical significance only.
• On the other hand, knowledge of Political Science has
practical value.
• Hence, Political Science can be called both as a science
and an art.
 What is exactly
• Political Science is not a "pure" science
like physics or chemistry, but it is a
science nonetheless
•  Political science focuses on all types of
political activity for analysis, including
behaviour. Therefore, it is neither a
pure science nor a behavioural science,
but a mix of the two.
• Political Science is a combination of art
and science.
 Conclusion>>>>>>>
• Aristotle regarded Political Science as “the supreme science” or
“the masters of all science”
• The study of Political Science has special importance in all
countries.
• Its study helps us to understand the mechanism and
constitutional systems of modern government. The principles of
government, the domestic and foreign policies of the nation. the
legislature, executive and judiciary of different countries, etc. are
studied in Political Science.
• As a matter of fact the scope of Political Science is so wide that it
will not suffice to choose any one of the methods mentioned above.
In order to cover the wide scope of Political Science, we have to
seek the assistance of almost all the methods.
What is Political Science?
• Political science is defined as the study of
the state and government.
• It comes from the Greek word polis, which
means city-state, and ciencia, which means
knowledge or study.
MODULE THREE
 Stages in the Study of Political
Science
• Religious Stage –
• the government, it’s leaders and laws was
considered as divine or divinely inspired.
• Metaphysical Stage –
• the state was considered as a human institution
and it is therefore absolute (cannot be changed).
• Modern Stage –
• the state was deemed capable of being improved
by rulers and subjects according to certain
principles and laws.
What is a state?

• A group of persons, more or less

numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of territory, independent
of external control, and possessing a
government to which a great body of
inhabitants render habitual obedience.
 Elements of a State

• People
• Territory
• Government
• Sovereignty
 What is the difference between
Nation and State?

• State is a legal or juristic concept, while

Nation is an ethnic or racial concept.
• Nasci = to be born indicates a relation of
birth or origin and implies a common race.
• Thus, a nation may comprise several states
Example: Egypt, Iraq, Saudi, Lebanon,
Jordan, etc. belong to Arab nation.
 What is the difference
between Nation and State?

• It is also possible for a single state to be

made up of more than one nation, e.g. US
which was the “melting pot” of many
nations that were eventually combined into
the “American nation”
 A. People
• Different meanings as used in the 1987
Constitution:
– Inhabitants (sec. 2, Art III; sec. 1, Art. XIII);
– Citizens (secs. 1 & 4, Art II; sec 7, art. III);
– Electors (sec. 4, Art. VII)
• As a requisite for Statehood, there should
be an adequate number for self-
sufficiency and defense; of both sexes for
perpetuity.
 What is the Difference between
Citizenship and Nationality?

Citizenship Nationality
• Legal or juristic • Ethnic or racial
• Can be changed • Absolute, Innate
or taken-back
 Citizens

• “A people bound together by common

attractions and repulsions into a living
organism possessed of a common pulse, a
common intelligence and inspiration, and
destined apparently to have a common
history and a common fate.” (Malcom)
 B. Territory

The National Territory

Sec. 1, Art. I: The national territory comprises the
Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and
waters embraced therein, and all other
territories over which the Philippines has
sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its
terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including
its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the
insular shelves, and other submarine areas.”
Components of Philippine Territory :
• Terrestrial =
• land
• Fluvial =
• internal waters
• Aerial domains =
• aerospace
• Marine =
• external waters both surface and sub-
aquatic
C. Government

• The agency or instrumentality through

which the will of the State is formulated,
expressed and realized.
• Our Constitution, however, requires our
government to be democratic and
republican.
 C. Government

Section 1, Art II. The Philippines is a democratic

and republican State. Sovereignty resides in the
people and all government authority emanates
from them.
REPUBLICAN
• It is one wherein all government authority
emanates from the people and is exercised by
representatives chosen by the people.
 C. Government

DEMOCRATIC
• This emphasizes that the Philippines has
some aspects of direct democracy such as
initiative and referendum.
 D. Sovereignty

• The supreme and uncontrollable power

innate in a State by which that State is
governed.
• Sovereignty resides in the people and all
government authority emanates from
them. (Sec. 1 Art.II)
 Sovereignty vs. Independence
• Sovereignty is the broader term. It has two
aspects:
– Internal
• – freedom of the State to manage its own
affairs;
– External
• – freedom of the State to direct its foreign
affairs.
• Independence is synonymous with external
sovereignty.
– It is defined as the power of a State to manage its
external affairs without direction or inference form
another State.
Theories of State Origin
• Divine Theory
– – the state is of divine origin, all political authority
emanates from God.
• Social Contract Theory
– - this theory states that men agreed among themselves
to live under one civil society or body politic. A person
surrendered his natural liberty but gained in return the
protection and civil rights guaranteed by the
governments.
• Force Theory
– – the state has arisen through sheer force; a tribe
conquering other tribes to form a kingdom.
Duties of the State
• Peace and Order
• Political Harmony (Good Laws)
• Social Justice
• Economic Development
 Inherent powers of the State
• Police power
– Power of the state to enact laws, ordinances or
rules,designed to promote the safety, health,
peace and order and morals of the communitty.
– POWER OF EMINENT DOMAIN
– Power of taxation..
• Power of the state to impose and collect revenue for
public purposes
GENERAL RIGHTS OF
STATES
 1. RIGHT TO EXIST AS A
POLITICAL ENTITY
RIGHT OF THE STATE TO
EXIST IS A
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT OF
EVERY STATE.
 2. THE RIGHT OF
INDIPENDENCE
• RIGHT OF THE STATE TO
MANAGE ALL ITS AFFAIRS,
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL
WITHOUT ANY CONTROL
OR RESTRAINT FROM
OTHER STATES.
4. THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY

• The right over land

with its terrestrial
domain.
4. RIGHT OF JURISDICTION

• The right of the state to

exercise authority over all
persons and material
possession within its
territorial boundaries.
 INTERVENTION
• Takes place when a state
interferes with the relations of
two other states without the
consent of both or either of them,
or when it interferes with the
domestic affairs of another state.
 JURISDICTION OF THE
STATE OVER PERSONS
• A state has an inherent
jurisdiction over all
persons with its territorial
domain, with some
exceptions.
 DIPLOMATIC
REPRESENTATIVES
• These are the persons
representing their governments
who conduct friendly relations
with other governments to
promote the interests of their
representative counterparts.
 EXTRADITION

• The surrender of a fugitive

accused or convicted of a
crime from justice by one
state or authority to
another.
Principles where Extradition of Fugitives from
Justice should be Observed

• 1. No state is obliged to surrender a

fugitive from justice in the absence of an
extradition treaty. IF the state voluntarily
surrender the fugitive from the country in
which he has committed a wrongful act, it
is only an act of courtesy.
2. That the crime committed by the fugitive is
within the jurisdiction of the demanding state.
3. That the evidence of guilt of the person sought
is very strong and legally established before
he becomes the subject of the extradition.
4. That the person who is the subject of
extradition must be tried in the courts of the
demanding state only for the offense with he
has been charged.
• 5. That the fugitive is not a citizen or subject
of the demanding state, it is customary as a
political culture and as a matter of courtesy for
the surrounding state to ask first the approval
of the home state of the fugitive.

• 6. That, generally in extradition treaties,

offenses committed against religious laws and
political offenses and not included among
offenses that are subject to extradition.
 THE RIGHT OF
INTERCOURSE
• The right of intercourse is the right of a
state to deal with other states to promote
their mutual interest. This includes the
right to negotiate treaties and other
agreements in relation to the rights and
obligations of the states who are parties to
such an agreement.
 State deals with each other
through representatives, consular or
diplomatic.
Diplomatic agents are the
representative which sovereign
states send to another state to look
after the welfare of their citizens and
to promote the interest of their
countries.
 Diplomatic agents are:
• 1. to represent his state in negotiations
with the state to which he is accredited
• 2. to observe and support over runners
which may affect his state.
• To protect the rights of the nationals of
his state.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS
1.ambassadors, legates, nuncios
2.Envoys, ministers
3.Minister resident
4.Charges d’ affaires
 Under the Consti. The Pres.
Appoints ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls with the
consent of the Comm. On
Appointments. It is an established
practice among states to appropriate
as diplomatic agent only a person
who is not a persona non grata to
reserving government.
MODULE FOUR
LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
LAW-
derived from an old Teutonic word
“lag” something which his evenly or fixed), it
is used to denote that which is uniform.
LAW-
any rule or set of rules promulgated
by the governing authority and enforced by the
courts.
 1. DIVINE LAW

The rules which regulate

the operation of the
universe in accordance to
the will of God.
 2. NATURAL LAW

the sum total of all

rules of life established by
divine inspiration and
respected by all nations.
 3. MORAL LAW

• a set of rules
pertaining to human
concepts of bad and
good.
 PHYSICAL LAW

• Laws of physical
science concerning
sequence of cause
and effects.
 SOCIAL LAW

• The rules existing in a

limited section of a
community and enforced
by that selection within
itself.
 ORIGIN OR
SOURCE OF THE
LAW
 1. RELIGION
• Ancient laws had the force of divine
inspiration, and their disregard was believed
to bring to the malefactors the severe
penalties which God inspired.

– Ex. Trial by ordeal - in which God was believed

to give authority to the right party.
 2. CUSTOM
• The earliest laws also had the
influence of local customs and
mores behind them. Primitive
people generally settled their
disputes according to their
customs.
 3. EQUITY
It means equality or justice. Where
an existing law cannot be applied to a
particular case, or where it would
obviously be unfair to do so, then
judgment is rendered according to
equity, or intrinsic fairness and
equality of treatment.
 CONSTITUTIONS

• The basic law of the land,

which defines the existence,
framework of government
and guiding principles.
 LEGISLATION

• The most common source

of law. Laws that are
enacted by the legislation
are called enacted laws or
statutes..
 TREATIES
• International treaties,
agreements and protocols
signed and ratified by the
state becomes as binding to
it as ordinary legislation.
 EXECUTIVE
PROCLAMATION
• Orders are issued by the
chief executive to
implement legislation
made by the legislature.
 JUDICIAL DECISIONS
• The decision of judges constitute
one of the main sources of law.
These discussions usually have
the binding force of law, thus they
are commonly called “judge made
laws”.
 LEGAL COMMENTARIES
• The legal commentaries of great jurists and
other modern writes on law are considered
to be veritable wellsprings of legal truths.

– The commentaries lay down guiding principles

for possible concerns providing the basis for
new laws.
• qq
 QQ
1. The right of the state to exercise authority over all persons and material
possession within its territorial boundaries..Jurisdiction
2. RIGHT OF THE STATE TO EXIST IS A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT OF
EVERY STATE…Exist as a political entity
3. The right over land with its terrestrial domain…RIGHT OF PROPERTY
4. Takes place when a state interferes with the relations of two other states
without the consent of both or either of them, or when it interferes with the
domestic affairs of another state…INTERVENTION
5. These are the persons representing their governments who conduct
friendly relations with other governments to promote the interests of their
representative counterparts…DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES
6. The surrender of a fugitive accused or convicted of a crime from justice by
one state or authority to another...EXTRADITION
7. The right of intercourse is the right of a state
to deal with other states to promote their
mutual interest…RIGHT OF INTERCOURSE
8-11 Classification of Diplomatic
Representatives
12-15 Origin or Sources of Law
 KINDS OF LAW
ACCORDING TO THE EXTENT OF THEIR
APPLICATION
a. MUNICIPAL LAW- national “law”, or the
collection of national and local laws issued and
enforced by the state to regulate the relations of its
citizens.
DIVISION OF MUNICIPAL LAW
1. GENERAL LAW- the aggregate of all national
laws passed by the law making body to govern all
persons and conditions within the state.
2. LOCAL ORDINANCES the laws enacted by
competent authority in a political subdivision of
the state.
3. CONVENTION LAW- the rules and
regulations which certain persons by common
agreement bind themselves with respect to certain
specific transactions.
4. AUTONOMIC LAW- the rules and regulations
prescribed by an associations of persons for their
organization.
5. MARTIAL LAW- the rules and regulations for
the discipline of the armed forces of a country.
2. According to the character of the persons
concerned
a. public law-regulates the relations of
the state and individuals.
ex. Criminal acts considered as
crimes against the state even if they are
committed against individuals.
murder
rape
kidnapping
 It may also mean the declaration of a
national situation whereby the military
shall rule the state, replacing the civilian
authorities as in the case of a military
junta after a coup d’ etat.
B. INTERNATIONAL LAW – means the
set of treaties, customs or rules which
govern the conduct of state in their
relations with one another.
2.PRIVATE L AW – is that branch of law
which regulates relations between individuals
ex.
contracts
civil damages
inheritance
marriage
separation
 3. According to form
1. WRITTEN - it is the law in formal
written
form (actually written)
ex. Laws passed by the legislative
body and given number and published in
official Gazette
1987 constitution
2. UNWRITTEN – the course of law which
has not been enacted in a formal manner by
legislature but is the result of flexible,
continious growth.

does not necessarily mean that it is not

written; indeed it may be inscribed in stone
(tribal laws), or metal or written down in
several documents.
 WORLD’S LEGAL SYSTEM
1. Judaeo-Christian Law
the commandments and other laws of the
Jews were handed down in written form to
Moses by God about 1225 B.C.
2. ROMAN LAW- developed by the Romans
through several centuries since the foundation
of Rome in 753 B.C.
codified under the direction of Emperor
Justinian
3. ANGLO-SAXON LAW – originated in
England where it developed in the royal courts
during medieval times.
char:
a. concept of due process of law
b. trial by jury
c. the principle that an accused
person is legally innocent until proven guilty.
4. ISLAMIC LAW- the basic legal system in
Muslim nations
-based on the Koran and the Sunnah
(sayings) of Prophet Muhammad
Ex. Muslim law-polygamy
5. COMMUNIST LAW- basic legal system in
communist nations
Under the communist law, the individual is
nothing; the state is everything.
In all cases of “crimes against the state”, an
accused person is given very little chance to prove his
innocence, for there is no due process of law.
6. CODES OF LAW- a
written compilation of all
the rules and regulations,
based on both customs
and statutes.
1. A national “law”, or the collection of national
and local laws issued and enforced by the state
to regulate the relations of its citizens…
MUNICIPAL LAW
2. a written compilation of all the rules and
regulations, based on both customs and statutes.
CODES OF LAW
3. It is the basic legal system in communist
nations. COMMUNIST LAW
4. The basic legal system in Muslim nations.
ISLAMIC LAW-
5-7 Characteristics of Anglo-
Saxon law
8. It is the law in formal written
form (actually written). WRITTEN
9. The commandments and other laws of the
Jews..Judaeo- Chriastian
10-12 Examples of private laws
contracts
civil damages
inheritance
1. Briefly explain the rule of “persona non
grata” ( 5 pts)
2. Compare and contrast written and unwritten
laws (10 pts)
MODULE FIVE
 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
-Government is a part of the state.
It is the organization or agency through which
the state experience and enforces its will.
-comes from the latin word
“gubernaculum”, a rudder or gubernare,
which means to steer control or direct.
-deduced that the government is the
organization which direct or controls the
affairs of the state.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
GOVERNMENT BY ARISTOTLE
1. Monarchy- rule by one man
2. Aristocracy- rule by few men
3. Democracy- rule by the people
Aristotle said that a government
may in the course of time be
perverted or corrupted.
• MONARCHY
– TYRANNY – rule by a bad ruler
• ARISTOCRACY
- OLIGARCHY – rule by
unscropolous rich people
- DEMOCRACY
– MOBOCRACY – rule by the mob
– Better word OCHLOCRACY
 Forms of
Government
 1. Monarchy

• Monarchy form of
government in which the
final authority is in the hands
of a single person without
regard to the source of his
elections or the nature or
duration of his tenure.
 TYPES OF
MONARCHY
A. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
is an idealized form of government, a monarchy
where the ruler has the power to rule their
country and citizens freely with no laws or
legally-organized direct opposition telling the
monarchy what to do.
– Ruler rules by divine right
– Exercises absolute power
– He is the chief executive
– The legislator and the judge at the same time

• In order of importance:
1. King
2. People
 Kings and Queens
• Get their power through
birthright or heredity.
• Raised to become head
of state.
• Highly educated and
cultured
• Louis XIV of France
was an absolute
monarch. (1681-1715)
 Today’s absolute monarchies
1. Swaziland 3. Saudi Arabia

4. Oman
2. Vatican City
 B. Constitutional Monarchies
• A constitutional monarchy is a political system in
which the head of state is a king or queen ruling to
the extent allowed by a constitution.

• CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY – the ruler

rules in accordance with the Constitution

• In order of importance:
1. The constitution
2. King or Queen
3. People
The biggest is…
• United Kingdom with
the commonwealth
nations of
• New Zealand
• Canada
• Jamaica
• Queen Elizabeth II is
the monarch
Other constitutional monarchies
 2. ARISTOCRACY
• A government in which a few persons
the aristocrats holding exceptional
rank and privileges, especially the
hereditary nobility, exercise the
political power of the states.
• Government by an elite society that
has high social status, wealth and
political power.
 3. DEMOCRACY
– A form of government in which the
supreme power is vested in the people
and exercised directly by them or by their
elected delegates or representatives under
a free electoral system.
– Lincoln
• Democracy is the government of the
people, by the people and for the
people.
 FORMS OF
DEMOCRATIC
GOVERNMENT
 DIRECT/PURE DEMOCRACY

• One in which the will of the state is

formulated or expressed directly and
immediately through the people in a
mass meeting or a primary assembly,
rather than through the medium of
delegates or representatives chosen to
act for them.
REPRESENTATIVE/INDIRECT

One in which the will of the

state is formulated and expressed
through the agency of a relatively
small and select body of persons
chosen by the people to act as
their representatives.
 4.CENTRALIZED AND
FEDERAL
• One in which has a single supreme
will from which radiates all
political power. All local
government units derive their
existence and power from this
single supreme government.
 5. Parliamentary/Presidential
• PARLIAMENTARY
– a form of government in which the
executive and the legislative are fused,
because the members of the cabinet are
also members of the legislature and the
party in power.
• The executive is called the prime
minister
Who has this?
• Australia
• The people elect the
parliament. Then
Parliament makes the
laws and decisions for
the country.
• Then Parliament elects a
president.
 6. Presidential democracy
• The executive power is exercised by a single
president elected by popular vote.
• He holds office for a specific period of time as
fixed by the constitution of the state.
• He appoints the members of his cabinet who has
alter egos and responsible to him only.
• The cabinet members serve at the pleasure and
mercy of the President.
• An essential element of the presidential system is
the separation of powers of the executive ,
legislative and judicial branches which is made
more effective by checks and balances between
the three branches.
• The U.S.A.
• The people elect
the president to a 4
year term.
• Congress is
elected separately.
• All branches of
government work
together within a
system of checks
and balances.
 Is this good?

• It is effective, everyone can be

heard. Every voice counts.
• It is ineffective, it takes time
to hear all points of views,
discuss and vote.
 7. TOTALITARIAN AND
AUTHORITARIAN
• TOTALITARIAN is total government
– It controls all aspects of the people’s life.
– It may have promised to extend certain rights
to the people, but these rights exists only on
paper
– In reality the people have no rights under a
totalitarian state, they exist for the use of the
state.
Ex. Fascism, Nazism, Communism
• AUTHORITARIAN government is
less harsh
• Its political power rest on some
absolute authority, and it also
does not recognize the
sovereignty of the people.
 8. Theocracy
• A government by a god or priests.
 Who has it?
• In the contemporary world, Iran and
Afghanistan are considered theocracies
because ultimate political authority in each
is in the hands of religious leaders and a
fundamentalist regime whose purpose is to
organize society under religious law.
 6. Dictatorship
• A form of government in which absolute
power is concentrated in a dictator.
• What is a dictator - a ruler who is
unconstrained by law and usually rules with
terror.
• A dictator can do what he wants, when he
wants to whomever he wants. If you question
a dictator’s rule you can be killed.
The World's Worst Current Day Dictators
  
1.Kim Jong-il (North Korea)
2.King Fahd and Prince Abdullah (Saudi Arabia)
3.Charles Taylor (Liberia)
4.Than Shwe (former Burma, now Myanmar)
5.Teodoro Obiang Nguema (Equatorial Guinea)
6.Saparmurat Niyazov (Turkmenistan)
7.Muammar Gaddafi (Libya)
8.Fidel Castro (Cuba)
9.Alexander Lukashenko (Belarus)
10.Robert Mugabe (Zimbabwe)
 Another way of making distinctions between the
types of government are de jure and de facto.
   (legal) (existing)

The distinction only becomes relevant in case

there are two rival governments existing in one state.

A de jure –
is one that has the legal recognition of the family
of nations, but it may exist alongside a rival government
which is de facto.

A de facto-
has set itself up in the state, it has its own
set of officials, laws, etc. but it does not has
international recognition although it may want
that.
 Ways of changing the government

1.Election
2.Resignation of the Chief of State or head of
Government
3.Impeachment
-comes from the French word
“empeche”
to (remove or throw away).
- it means the forceable removal of
the chief executive of the legislature
4. Natural death of the leader
5. Assasination
to associate means to kill an important
public figure, usually for political reasons.
6. Coup d’etat
Military coup d ‘etat (literally meaning “a blow
to the state”) have ousted governments usually in
newly emerging nations with unstable politics and a
strong military.
7. Civil war –
part of a country may select or choose to
declare its indipendence from the rest of the
country.
- always bloody and violent
8. Revolution – a national upheaval which results in
drastic changes for the country; its form government
and set of officials.
1030-MW
1-8 ways of changing the government
9. A government that has the legal recognition of the
family of nations ( de jure)
10. A government rule by a bad ruler.. TYRANNY

3:00-MW
1-3 Aristotleian classification of government
4- It is the organization or agency through which the state
experience and enforces its will. GOVERNMENT
5. A latin word for government which means a rudder..
“gubernaculum”
6-10 forms of government
1. 3:00 TTh
2.1. 1. A government rule by the mob..MOBOCRACY
2. It controls all aspects of the people’s life. TOTALITARIAN
3. A form of government in which the final authority is in the hands of a
single person . Monarchy
4. A french word which means remove or throw away.. “empeche”
5. A national upheaval which results in drastic changes for the country.
Revolution
6. A government rule by the unscropolous rich people. OLIGARCHY
7. A government that does not has have international recognition. De
facto
8. A form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in a dictator.
Dictatorial.
9. A government wherein The executive power is exercised by a single
president elected by popular vote. PRESIDENTIAL DEMOCRACY

10. It literally means “a blow to the state”. coup d ‘etat

1. 4:30 TTh
2. 1. A government rule by the mob..MOBOCRACY
2. It controls all aspects of the people’s life. TOTALITARIAN
3. A form of government in which the final authority is in the hands of a
single person . Monarchy
4. A french word which means remove or throw away.. “empeche”
5. A national upheaval which results in drastic changes for the country.
Revolution
6. A government rule by the unscropolous rich people. OLIGARCHY
7. A government that does not has have international recognition. De facto
8. A form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in a dictator.
Dictatorial.
9. A government wherein The executive power is exercised by a single
president elected by popular vote. PRESIDENTIAL DEMOCRACY

10. It literally means “a blow to the state”. coup d ‘etat

11-13 Aristotleian classification of government
14- It is the organization or agency through which the state experience and
enforces its will. GOVERNMENT
15. A latin word for government which means a rudder.. “gubernaculum”
16-20 forms of government
CONSTITUTION
 CONSTITUTION
• Cooley, Constitution is the body of rules and
maxims in accordance with which the powers of
the state are habitually exercised.
• It is the municipal law or the domestic law of
the State.
• The purpose of the Constitution is primarily the
articulation of state mechanism for the
limitation and control of political power and the
promotion of collective good.
• Constitution is recognized as a “higher law,”
supreme to all leaders and to all laws legislated
by Congress.
 CLASSSIFICATION OF
AOrigin/History
• As to CONSTITUTION
– Enacted- a product of tedious legislation by
a constituent assembly or a constitutional
convention. (Phil. Consti.)
– Evolved or cummulative – when the law is a
product of long political and cultural history
of the people, which is transmitted from
generation to generation. A cumulative
constitution is a product drawn from
customs,traditions, norms, and values,
precedents of judicial rulings and so forth
rather tha a product of conventional
enactment.
• As to form
– Written- it is codified, expressed and
formalized. Its definite form was enacted
by revolution. A written constitution is
believed that essential characteristics of a
written constitution possess clarity; that
constitute clearness of thoughts and ideas
making the constitution interpretable
and understandble; brevity and broad.
– Unwritten- a product of political
evolution, basically a product of social
customs, traditions, values, and judicial
decisions, with some parts codified.
 BILL OF RIGHTS
– The article that articulates and enlists the
rights of an individual that the government
is duly bound to protect, respect, and carry
out.
– According to Hemphill’s Dictionary “refers
to those individual rights and privileges out
in the constitutional declarations and
legislative enactments that must be
accorded to every purpose.
• 1987 CONSTITUTION STRENGTHENED THE
BILL OF RIGHTS
a. Right against unreasonable searches and
seizures (Sec.2);
b. Right to form labor unions, associations,
and organizations (Sec. 8);
c. Right against unlawful confiscation of
private property without just
compensation (Sec. 9)
d. Right against the suspension of the
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus;
e. Free access to courts and quasi judicial
bodies (Sec.11)
– f. Expanded rights of an accused
under the Miranda Doctrine,
– rights of person under investigation
for the commission of an offense,
– such as the right to remain silent,
– the right to counsel,
– and the right to be informed of such
existence.
– And the right against the use of
torture, violence, and intimidation.
• g. The right not to be
detailed by reason of one’s
political beliefs and
aspirations (Sec. 18.1);
• h. Right against involuntary
servitude (Sec. 18.2); and
• i. more as provided by
specific laws.
• CLASSIFICATION OF RIGHTS
– 1. NATURAL RIGHTS.
– These rights are naturally conferred upon
a person by his creator as a human and
rational being, which are so indispensable
and inalienable.
• A person needs not to invoke the
source of his right, as right to life,for
example,is an inherent one.
– 2. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS
– These rights are generally granted by the
expressed provisions of the organic law of
the State.
• DIVISION OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS
• Political Rights.
These are rights enjoyed by the citizen of the state.
These rights are being conferred on a person upon membership
to the political organization of the State.
• Civil Rights
These are rights granted to individuals for the enjoyment of
his happiness.
These includes among others their social, economic, and
cultural rights.
• Social and Economic Rights
These are the rights that guarantee an individual his right for
the enjoyment of his well being and his security in the State.
• Rights of An Accused
These rights are defined under the bill of rights.
The rights of an accused entail full protection of the concerned
party under custodial investigation.
Due Process of Law (Sec.1)
The first right granted by this Article
is due process.

Due process has no precise definition.

The due process clause is said to be a

fundamental principle of justice rather
a specific rule of law.
• CLASSIFICATION OF DUE PROCESS
a. PROCEDURAL DUE PROCESS –
refers to the method or manner by
which the law is enforced. It requires a
procedure “which hears before it condemns,
which proceeds upon inquiry and renders
judgment only after trial.
b. Substantive Due Process –
refers to the law itself, to
the application of the appropriate law in a
certain case, and that law must be fair, just,
and accordance with the rightful reason and
that the legal consequences and penalty to be
applied shall be just and appropriate.
• C. Administrative Due Process
1. Right to a hearing, which includes the right to
present one’s case and present evidences in
support thereof;
2. The tribunal must consider the evidences
forwarded or adduced;
3. The tribunal must support the decision made;
4. The decision must be called from the evidence
presented by both parties, and must be made
known to the involved parties;
5. The decision of the case must be arrived at by an
Independent Tribunal; and
6. The Tribunal should in all controversial
questions, render it decision in such a manner that
parties can know the various issues involved and
the reason for the decision.
 Search Warrant and
Warrant of Arrest (Sec. 2)
• A Search Warrant is defined as “an order in
writing, issued in the name of the people of the
Philippines, signed by a judge and directed to a
peace officer , commanding him to search for
certain personal property and bring it before the
Court.

• A warrant of arrest is a command in formal

writing issued against a person, to take him into
custody of law in order hat he may be bound for
the commission of an offense.
 The Right to Remain Silent
and Have Counsel (Sec. 12)
• Article lll, Sec 12 is commonly
known as the Miranda Doctrine.
• When a person is under
investigation for the
commission of crime, the
officer must inform him his
right to remain silent and the
right to have competent counsel
for his case.
 Right to Bail (Sec.13)
• BAIL defined as the security required
by a court and given for the
provisional or temporary release of a
person who is in custody of the law
upon condition of his appearance
before any court as required under the
terms specified.
• “No bail shall be allowed
after the judgment has
become final or after the
accused has commenced to
serve sentence.”

• The right to bail is not

available in the military; this
serves as an exemption to
the general law on Art. lll
• Right to presumption of
innocence is understood that
the accused remains innocent
until proven otherwise. The
prosecution carries the burden
of proof to establish the guilt
of the accused, beyond
reasonable doubt, otherwise he
shall be acquitted.Q1
• 10:30 TRUE OR FALSE
1. Honesty and integrity are the core values that must be conformed by the civil
servants.
2. The state ensures local autonomy of regional governments and local
government units.
3. A government can be sued.
4. Sovereignty resides in all people of the state.
5. Republicanism provides for the principle for checks and balances.
6. The application of due process is an absolute rule in any court of law in the
Philippines.
7. A criminal who confessed to a heinous crime shall be imprisoned,punished
and executed.
8. Right to life covers right to one’s reputation, dignity and character.
9. Equal protection of the law do not applies to all citizens of the Philippines
regardless of status and distinctions in life.
10. The general rule states no person can be arrested without the search warrant
.
• 3:00 MW
1. Impeachment is an administrative (criminal)offense which can remove a high
official from public service.
2. The government may not call upon its citizens in defense of the state when the
President so declares.
3. There exists a political union between the church and state.
4. A criminal has no right to dignity as a human being.
5. Marriage as an institution is a temporary (permanent) union of a couple entered
into in accordance with law for establishing conjugal and family life.
6. Information and reliable hearsay may be bases for constituting a probable cause
to a given crime.
7. There exists right to personal privacy, like right not to respond during cross
examination/court litigation.
8. Oral defamation,slander, and libel are possible offenses whenever a person
violates one’s right to dignity and reputation.
9. Electric chair is a form of execution which in the Philippines is the capital
punishment.
10. Freedom to assemble or demonstrate without permit is a right of the people to
redress grievance against the government.
3:00 TTh
1. The state gives priority to education.
2. The separation of church and state shall be inviolable.(ignored)
3. Sovereignty resides in the Filipino electorates.
4. Serving the people is a secondary duty of the state.
5. There is supremacy of the military authority in the Philippines.
6. Government funded research outputs may be made accessible to
public consumption and information.
7. A suspect is an accused and an accused is a criminal.
8. Eminent domain follows speedy process of expropriating private
property for public use.
9. A woman who ran naked in the public can be apprehended and
arrested.
10. During custodial investigation, the right of an accused is
protected but not the right against torture and brutality.
• 4:30 TTh
• 1. Checks and balances is the principle of parliamentary system.
• 2. Serving the people is a secondary duty of the state.
• 3. The separation of church and state shall be inviolable.(ignored)
• 4. A government can be sued.
• 5. Honesty and integrity are the core values that must be
conformed by the civil servants.
• 6. The law is harsh but it is the law.
• 7. The law is expressed about the provision of death penalty in
the country.
• 8. The state gives priority to education.
• 9. A criminal has no right to dignity as a human being.
• 10. There is supremacy of the military authority in the
Philippines..
 CITIZENSHIP
• A term signifying membership in
a democratic state.
–It carries with it the duty of the
state to be loyal and on the part
of the state to provide for its
membership.
 CITIZEN

• A person who is a member

of a democratic state,
enjoying all political and
civil rights.
 ALIEN
• A CITIZEN OR A SUBJECT OF A COUNTRY
WHO IS LIVING IN OR JUST PASSING OR
VISITING ANOTHER COUNTRY
• POPULARLY KNOWN AS A FOREIGNER
• HE IS NOT GIVEN THE FULL RIGHTS TO
CITIZENSHIP SUCH AS THE RIGHT TO
VOTE AND HOLD PUBLIC
OFFICE,NEVERTHELESS, HE IS ENTITLED
TO RECEIVE FULL PROTECTION AS TO HIS
PERSON AND PROPERTY.
 KINDS OF CITIZENS
• NATURAL BORN-
• Enjoy special privileges.

• NATURALZED BORN-
• Bring honors to their second homeland.
 CITIZEN AT THE TIME OF
THE ADOPTION OF THE
CONSTITUTION
• THOSE CONSIDERED Filipino
citizens under the 1973 Constitution
(which took effect on January 17,
1973) at the time of the effectivity of
the new Constitution on February 2,
1987 by virtue of Proclamation No.58
of the President.
 MODES OF ACQUIRING
CITIZENSHIP
1.CITIZENSHIP BY BIRTH – governed by two
principles
JUS SANGUINIS

JUS SOLI OR LOCI

 Citizens by blood relationship
• The Phil. follows the principle
of jus sanguinis, or citizenship
by birth because of blood
relationship, not jus soli or
citizenship by place of birth.
• The father or mother of a child may
be a natural-born Filipino or a
Filipino by naturalization.
• A child born of a Filipino father or
mother is a Filipino citizen whether
such child is legitimate or not.
• If the child is born in a country where
the principle of jus soli is followed,
he will have two citizenships.
Citizens through election under the
1935 Constitution
• Under 1935 Constitution, the child whose
mother was a Filipino citizen at the time of her
marriage to a foreigner but whose citizenship
was lost by reason of such marriage, is
regarded as an alien until he elects Philippine
citizenship after reaching the age of majority.
• 1973 and the present Constitutions, a child
born of a Filipino mother (on or after January
17, 1973) is a natural-born Filipino citizen
 2. NATURALIZATION
• The process by which a foreigner
becomes a citizen of a state. It is similar
to the process of adoption of a child into
a family except that in adoption, it is the
adopter who does the choosing.
• The individual has to apply to become a
citizen. It requires a legal process.
 CITIZENS BY
NATURALIZATION
• Those who are not Filipino citizens at
birth may become citizens by
naturalization.
• Only Filipinos can vote, be appointed or
elected to positions in the government,
engage in certain businesses, or practice
their professions.
• Only those who have come
to love our country and can
contribute to its
development and progress
should be allowed to
become citizens by
naturalization.
Ways of acquiring citizenship
by naturalization
1. By judgment of the court
A foreigner may apply in the
RTC which will determine whether he has
the qualifications and none of the
disqualifications provided by law.
2. By direct act of Congress
the law making body simply passes a law
directly granting citizenship on a
foreigner.
 Natural-born citizens
• 1) whom at the moment of their
birth are already citizens of the
Philippines; and
• 2)Whom do not have to perform
any act to acquire perfect their
Philippine citizenship.
 3.CITIZENSHIP BY
MARRIAGE
• In some countries, a women who
marries a foreigner becomes a citizen
of the country of her husband.
• In some states, however, the wife
undergoes a process of naturalization
before becoming a state citizen.
Effect of marriage of a citizen to
an alien
–Citizens of the Philippines
who marry aliens retain their
citizenship, unless by their act
of omission, they are deemed
under the law, to have
renounced it.
LOSS OF CITIZENSHIP
• EXPATRIATION- giving up or
losing one’s citizenship.
• A Filipino citizen may lose his
citizen ship in any of the ff:
– Voluntarily-
• 1. By becoming a naturalized citizen
of some other country
• 2. by renouncing his citizenship
• 3. by swearing allegiance to a foreign
country; and
• 4. by rendering service in the armed
forces of another country;and
• INVOLUNTARILY
– By cancellation of his certification of
naturalization by the court;and
– By being a deserter in the Phil. Armed
forces in times of war
 REQUISITES OF LOST PHIL
CITIZENSHIP
• 1. naturalization
• 2. repatriation
• 3. direct act of the congress of the Phils.
Repatriation is made by merely taking the
necessary oath of allegiance to the
Republic of the Phils. and registering
the same in the proper civil registry.
 Effect of Marriage of citizen to
an Alien
1. A citizen of the Phils. who marries an alien
does not lose his/her citizenship even if the
laws in her/his spouse’s country sates that
he/she automatically acquires the
citizenship of his/her spouse.
The provision clearly protects every
filipino woman who otherwise stands to
lose her citizenship by simply marrying a
foreigner.
• A citizen loses his/her citizenship
only if he/she does something which
obviously signifies an intention to
turn away from his/her country, such
as taking an oath support the laws of
another country.
• A Filipino woman who
acquired the citizenship of her
foreign husband through
marriage, shall have two
citizenships-Philippine
citizenship and that of her
foreign husband.
Dual allegiance of citizens
• A Filipino citizen, whether natural-
born or naturalized, has the supreme
duty to remain loyal to our Republic,
and to no other.
• What the section prohibits is not dual
citizenship but dual allegiance.
 SUFFRAGE
• The right and obligation to
vote in the election of
government officers and in the
decision of public questions
submitted to the people.
• According to
Morgan,”Voters are the
uncrowned kings who rule
the nation.”
• Vox populi, vox dei, (The
voicee of the people is the
voice of God)
 NATURE OF SUFFRAGE
• 1. A mere privilege- Suffrage
should be granted to
individuals only upon the
fulfillment of certain
minimum conditions deemed
essential for the welfare of the
society.
• POLITICAL RIGHT- enable
every citizen to participate in
the process of government to
assure that it can truly be said
to derive its powers from the
consent of the governed.
SCOPE OF SUFFRAGE
• ELECTION-
– refers to the means by which
people choose certain officials to
represent them in the
administration of the government.
• PLEBISCITE-
– refers to an election wherein the
people decide whether to accept or
reject certain changes in the
Constitution.
• REFERENDUM-
• refers to submission of a law or a part
thereof passed by Congress or a local
legislative body to the people for their
approval or rejection.
• INITIATIVE-
• refers to the process whereby the people
directly propose and enact laws. Changes
in the Constitution may likewise be directly
proposed by the people through initiative.
• RECALL-
• refers to the means by which a local
official may be allowed from office
even before he finishes his term by
a vote of the people after
registration of a petition signed by a
required percentage of the qualified
voters.
 PERSONS QUALIFIED AND
DISQUALIFIED TO VOTE
1. Any person who has been sentenced
to a prison term of not less than one
(1) year, except after five (5) years
from completion of his sentence.
2. Any person who has been found
guilty by a court of having
committed a crime involving
disloyalty against the State such
rebellion, treason, etc., except after
five (5) years from completion of
sentence.
• Any person found to be not in
normal mental condition.

–These persons will not be

allowed to vote even if they
have all the qualifications
provided in the Constitution.
 LITERACY REQUIREMENT
PROHIBITED
• A person is not disqualified to vote merely
because he is illiterate or does not know how to
read and write.
• One who is illiterate is not necessarily ignorant.
People now know what is happening in their
community and in their country.
• They listen to radios and join conversations and
discussions with their neighbors and friends, and
members of the family.
• They should not be denied the right to take part
in their government just because they cannot
read newspapers or magazines.Q1
• 9. Citizens enjoy political rights only. .f
• 8. Aliens are protected by the State in their persons and
properties..t
• 3. Suffrage is the right to vote only in an election. F
• 7. Non-resident aliens refers to the national of the State.
• 6. Nationals render allegiance to the State.
• 5. Jus sanguinis is the doctrine of blood relationship.
• 4. Jus loci is the principle of birth location.
• 3. Refugees are stateless persons and not accorded the equal
protection of the law.
• 2. A person may acquire citizenship following the citizenship of
his or her Filipino parent.
• 1. Naturalization is involuntary process of acquiring citizenship
of another state.
• 1030-MW- base covered path—gate to the
canteen..196 incompatible..
• 130-mw-front…
• 300-mw- stone marker and flooring infront
of supply
• 730-tth
• 130-tth-garden fence left side
• 300-tth – base –covered to educ
• 430-tth-base-covered to educ
• 8-11-fri-flooring in front of clinic
 ARTICLE VI

Legislative Department
 3 BRANCHES
of the
GOVERNMENT

LEGISLATIVE EXECUTIVE JUDICIARY

Principle of SEPARATION OF POWERS

- each government branch is not

permitted to encroach upon the powers
confided to others. Arbitrary rule
would result if the same body is to
exercise all the powers of the
government.
Principle of CHECKS AND BALANCES
- authorizing a considerable amount of
encroachment or checking by one branch in the
affairs of the others. Each branch is given certain
powers with which to check the others.

 Pres.may disapprove bills enacted by Congress

 Congress may reject appointments by the Pres.
 Judiciary may declare unconstitutional laws
enacted by the Congress
 EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 464
September 26, 2005

to implement the Constitutional provisions on

the separation of powers between co-equal
branches of the government, all heads of
departments of the Executive Branch of the
government shall secure the consent of the
President prior to appearing before either House
of Congress.
SECTION 1.

The legislative power shall be vested in

the Congress of the Philippines which
shall consist of a Senate and a House of
Representatives ….
Legislative Power
- power to make laws, and
subsequently, to alter and repeal
them
Laws that are passed by Congress
are binding rules of conduct, which
everyone is expected to follow,
respect, and uphold.
 – Under the 1987 Constitution, the power to make,
propose, or amend laws is also extended to the
people, in whom sovereignty resides, through the
mechanisms of initiative and referendum.
Initiative-
the authority is reserved to the people through
direct participation of the electorate in law making
processes either in national or local level.
Referendum
– it means the process in which the people are referred
directly on any question of law passed by Congress or
a local legislative body for their approval or rejection.
 TYPES OF LEGISLATURE
1. Unicameral
consisting of one chamber
2. Bicameral
consisting of two chamber
3. Multi-Cameral
consisting of three or more chambers
 Powers of the Chambers
- either houses may introduce legislative
measures
- they can amend or reject any legislation when
introduced for deliberation
- their approval is necessary for the passage of
the bill
- have equal power to make laws of the land
 Officers in the Bicameral Congress
SENATE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Senate President Speaker of the House

Senate Pro-Tempore Deputy Speaker of the House

Speaker of the House
Majority Floor Leader Majority Floor Leader

Minority Floor Leader Minority Floor Leader

Senate Secretary Secretary General

Sgt. At Arms Sgt. At Arms

• Senate President
– Elected by the majority of the members of the
Senate
– Elected at the start of each Congress, there had been
numerous instances of Senate coups in which a
sitting president is unseated in the middle of the
session.
Speaker of the House
- elected by majority of all the members of the
House including vacant seats.
- before a speaker is elected, the House’s sergeant-
at-arms sits as the “Presiding Officer” until a
speaker is elected.
• The Speaker is the head of the House of
Representatives.
• He presides over the session
• Decides on all questions of order, subject to
appeal by any member
• Signs all acts, resolutions, memorials, writs,
warrants and subpoenas issued by or upon order
of the House
• Appoints, suspends, dismisses or disciplines
House personnel
Senate President Pro-Tempore
-the second highest-ranking official of the
Senate of the Philippines
-during the absence of the Senate President, the
Senate President Pro-tempore presides over the
Senate.
Deputy Speaker of the House
- perform the the speaker’s role when the
speaker is absent.
Majority Floor Leader (Senate and House of
Representatives)
- aside from being the spokesman of the majority
party, is to direct the deliberations on the floor.
- the Majority Leader is concurrently the
Chairman of the Committee on Rules
Minority Floor Leader
The spokesman of the minority party in the
House or even in the Senate and is an ex-officio
member of all standing Committees.
-the leader elected by the minority party of the
Senate of the Philippines, serves as their
official leader in the body.
-he also manages the business of the minority
part in the Senate
-he is expected to be alert and vigilant in
defense of the minority’s rights.
-it is his function and duty to criticize
constructively the policies and programs of the
majority, and to this end, employ parliamentary
tactics and give close attention to all proposed
legislation.
House Secretary General
-enforces orders and decisions of the
house
-keeps journal of each session
- notes all questions of order, among other
things
- presides over the chamber at the first
legislative session after an election, and is
elected by a majority of the members.
Senate Secretary
The Senate Secretariat is headed by a
Secretary, who is elected by members of the
Senate.
Sergeant-at-Arms
-responsible for the maintenance of order in the
House of Representatives, among other things.
-elected by a majority of the members
-responsible for the security and maintenance of
order in the Senate in accordance with the orders
of the Senate President.
 SCOPE AND CLASSIFICATION OF
THE POWERS OF CONGRESS
1. GENERAL LEGISLATIVE POWER
– refers to the overall authority to enact laws for the
people and the state unless the Constitution itself
limits the subject matter on which it may legislate.
2. SPECIFIC POWERS –
a. power to declare the existence of the state of war
b. power to delegate emergency powers to the Pres.
c. power to appropriation
d. Power to taxation
e. Power to concur on treaties through the Senate and
the House of Representatives
f. Power to concur the grant of amnesty
g. Power to act as Board of Canvassers for Presidential
and Vice Presidential Elections.
3. Implied Powers-
those authority enjoyed by legislature to
effectively exercise its constitutionally granted
powers, like the powers to conduct investigation in
aid of legislation or to determine the rules of
proceedings.
4. Generally Non-Delegable Powers/Inherent Powers-
SECTION 2.

The Senate shall be composed of twenty-

four Senators…
SECTION 3.
No person shall be a Senator unless he is
a natural-born citizen of the Philippines,
and, on the day of the election, is at least
thirty-five years of age, able to read and
write, a registered voter, and a resident
of the Philippines for not less than two
years immediately preceding the day of
the election.
– The Constitution also determined that the term of
office of an elected Senator should commence at
noon of 30 June following his official declaration.
– Should there be vacancies upon reason of death,
resignation, or incapacity, a special election may be
called in a manner prescribed by law (Art. Vl , Sec.
9), and those elected in the special election shall
only serve the unexpired term of office of their
predecessors.
– The Constitution ensures that the elections for
Congress, shall be on the second Monday of May,
unless otherwise changed by law.
SECTION 4.

The term of office of the Senators shall be

six years …

No Senator shall serve for more than two

consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation
of the office for any length of time shall not
be considered as an interruption in the
continuity of his service for the full term for
which he was elected.
SECTION 5.
(1) The House of Representatives shall be
composed of not more than two hundred
and fifty members… who shall be elected
from legislative districts …
(2) The party-list representatives shall
constitute twenty per centum of the total
number of representatives …labor, peasant,
urban poor, indigenous cultural
communities, women, youth, and such other
sectors as may be provided by law..
 2 kinds of members of House of Representatives
1.) District Representative – elected directly and
personally from the territorial unit he is seeking
to represent.

2.) Party-list Representative – chosen indirectly,

through the party he represents, which is the one
voted for by the electorate. This is to give an
opportunity to weak sectors to have their voices
heard.
SECTION 6.
No person shall be a Member of the House
of Representatives unless he is a natural-
born citizen of the Philippines and, on the
day of the election, is at least twenty-five
years of age, able to read and write, and,
except the party-list representatives, a
registered voter in the district in which he
shall be elected, and a resident thereof for
a period of not less than one year
immediately preceding the day of the
election.
SECTION 7.
The Members of the House of
Representatives shall be elected for a term
of three years …

No member of the House of Representatives

shall serve for more than three consecutive
terms…
SECTION 11.
A Senator or Member of the House of
Representatives shall, in all offenses
punishable by not more than six years
imprisonment, be privileged from arrest
while the Congress is in session. No
Member shall be questioned nor be held
liable in any other place for any speech or
debate in the Congress or in any
committee thereof.
FREEDOM from ARREST
offenses punishable by not more than six
years imprisonment
while Congress is in session

FREEDOM of SPEECH and DEBATE

remarks must be made in connection with the
discharge of official duties.
while Congress is in session
Reason for the congressional privileges…
To enable members of Congress to discharge
their functions adequately and without fear. It is
true that the privileges may be abused.
However, the harm which would come from its
abuse is considered slight compared to that
which might arise if the privileges were not
given.
SECTION 12.
All Members of the Senate and the House
of Representatives shall, upon assumption
of office, make a full disclosure of their
financial and business interests… They
shall notify the House concerned of a
potential conflict of interest that may arise
from the filing of a proposed legislation of
which they are authors.
SECTION 13.

No Senator or Member of the House of

Representatives may hold any other office
or employment in the Government…
during his term without forfeiting his seat.
Neither shall he be appointed to any office
which may have been created or the
emoluments thereof increased during the
term for which he was elected.
INCOMPATIBLE OFFICE
Office which may not be held by a member
of a Congress outside the legislative department.
There is a need for members to devote their time
and attention to the discharge of their legislative
responsibilities.

FORBIDDEN OFFICE
Office which a member of a Congress may
not be a beneficiary by reason of being a
participant when said office was created. Hence, a
member of Congress shall not be eligible for
appointment to such office even if he resigns.
SECTION 15.
The Congress shall convene once every year
on the fourth Monday of July for its
regular session, …and shall continue to be
in session for such number of days as it may
determine until thirty days before the
opening of its next regular session, exclusive
of Saturdays, Sundays, and legal holidays.
The President may call a special session at
any time.
SECTION 16.

(1) The Senate shall elect its President and

the House of Representatives its Speaker,
by a majority vote of all its respective
Members.

(2) A majority of each House shall

constitute a quorum to do business…
QUORUM
- a number of membership which is competent to
transact its business; is at least one-half plus one
of the members of a body.

LEGISATIVE JOURNAL
- the official record of what is done and passed in a
legislative assembly and the proceedings occurred
from day to day.
(3) Each House may determine the rules of its
proceedings, punish its Members for
disorderly behavior, and, with the
concurrence of two-thirds of all its Members,
suspend or expel a Member. A penalty of
suspension, when imposed, shall not exceed
sixty days.
(4) Each House shall keep a Journal of its
proceedings, and from time to time publish
the same, excepting such parts as may, in its
judgment, affect national security…
SECTION 17.

The Senate and the House of

Representatives shall each have an
Electoral Tribunal which shall be the sole
judge of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of
their respective Members…
SECTION 18.

There shall be a
Commission on
Appointments… shall act
on all appointments
submitted to it…
SECTION 21.
The Senate or the House of
Representatives or any of its respective
committees may conduct inquiries in aid
of legislation in accordance with its duly
published rules of procedure. The rights
of persons appearing in or affected by
such inquiries shall be respected.
SECTION 26.
No bill passed by either House shall become
a law unless it has passed three readings on
separate days, and printed copies thereof in
its final form have been distributed to its
Members three days before its passage…
Upon the last reading of a bill, no
amendment thereto shall be allowed, and the
vote thereon shall be taken immediately
thereafter, and the yeas and nays entered in
the Journal.
 Steps in the Passage of a Bill
BILL- the draft of a law submitted to the
consideration of a legislative body for its
adoption.
FIRST READING
any member of either house can present a
proposed bill. During the first readings the
principal author of the bill may propose
additional author. The bill contains its number,
title and names of authors.
• THE BILL IS REFERRED TO THE
APPROPRIATE COMMITTEE
After the first reading the bill is referred to the
appropriate committee/ committee for study. If
disapproved in the committee, the bill dies a natural
death.
• SECOND READING
• If the committee’s evaluation of the bill is
formulated, it is forwarded to the Committee on
Rules so that it can be calendared for deliberation on
Second Reading. The bill is read for the second time
in its entirety.
• DEBATES
– A general debate follows after the second reading
and amendments may be proposed by any member
of Congress. Amendments are done in accordance
with the rules of either House.
• PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION
– When the bill is approved on the second reading,
the bill is printed in the final form and copies are
distributed among the members of the House three
days before the passage, except bills certified by
the Chief Executive.
• THIRD READING
This is the last reading of a bill where
only its title is read. No amendment is allowed
and the votes (yeas or nays) are entered in the
journal. A member may abstain. As a rule a
majority of the member constituting a quorum
can pass a bill.
• THE BILL IS REFERRED TO THE OTHER
HOUSE
• If the bill is approved, it is referred to the other
House where the same procedure is observed.
• The BILL IS FORWARDED TO THE
PRESIDENT
– A bill approved on the third reading by both Houses
is printed in form and transmitted to the President
for appropriate action – approved or disapproved.
– If the President does not communicate his veto of
any bill to the House where it originated within 30
days from receipt it shall become a law even if he
did not sign it.
– Bills that are re-passed by Congress over the veto of
the Chief Executive automatically becomes a law.
3 ways when a bill may become a law
1.) When the President approves the bill by
signing it.
2.) When the President vetoes the bill and the
same is overriden by 2/3 votes of all the
members of both Houses.
3.) When the President does not
communicate his veto within 30 days after
the date of receipt.
ARTICLE VII

Executive
Department
 EXECUTIVE BRANCH
the branch of government which gives
effect to the will of the state.
CHIEF EXECUTIVE
- the head of the government who is
responsible for the administration and
execution of the laws of the land.
SECTION 1.

The executive power shall be vested

in the President of the Philippines.
EXECUTIVE POWER

- power to administer laws, carry

them into practical operation and
enforce their due observance.
SECTION 2.

No person may be elected President

unless he is a natural-born citizen
of the Philippines, a registered
voter, able to read and write, at
least forty years of age on the day
of the election, and a resident of
the Philippines for at least ten
years immediately preceding such
election.
SECTION 3.

There shall be a Vice-President who

shall have the same qualifications and
term of office and be elected with and
in the same manner as the President.
He may be removed from office in the
same manner as the President.
SECTION 4.

The President and the VP shall be

elected… for a term of six years…
The President shall not be eligible for
any reelection. No person who has
succeeded as President and has
served as such for more than four
years shall be qualified for election to
the same office at any time.
No Vice-President shall serve for
more than two consecutive terms.

The Supreme Court… shall be the sole

judge of all contests relating to the
election… of the President and VP…
TERM of OFFICE TENURE of OFFICE

- refers to the - period during which

period during the incumbent
which an officer actually holds the
may claim to hold office.
the office as a
matter of right.
SECTION 8.

In case of death, permanent disability,

removal from office, or resignation
of the President, the Vice-President
shall become the President to serve
the unexpired term.
In case of death, permanent disability,
removal from office, or resignation of
both the President and Vice-President,
the President of the Senate or, in case
of his inability, the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, shall then
act as President until the President or
Vice-President shall have been elected
and qualified.
SECTION 9.

Whenever there is a vacancy in the

Office of the Vice-President during the
term for which he was elected, the
President shall nominate a Vice-President
from among the Members of the Senate
and the House of Representatives…The
appointment needs to be confirmed by a
majority vote of the Congress,voting
separately.
SECTION 10.

The Congress shall… after the vacancy

in the offices of the President and
VP occurs, convene…and enact a law
calling for a special election to elect
a President and VP.
SECTION 13.

The President, the VP, the Members of

the Cabinet… shall not, unless
otherwise provided in the
Constitution, hold any other office or
employment during their tenure.
They shall not … practice any other
profession, participate in any
business or be financially interested
in any contract with the Government.
The spouse and relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the
fourth civil degree of the President
shall not during his tenure be
appointed as members of
Constitutional Commissions or the
Office of the Ombudsman, as
Secretaries or heads of bureaus or
offices…
Specific Powers
of the
President

Article VII
Sec. 16 - 23
 Appointing Power
SECTION 16.
The President shall nominate and,
with the consent of the Commission on
Appointments, appoint the heads of the
executive departments, ambassadors,
other public ministers and consuls, or
officers of the armed forces from the
rank of colonel or naval captain, and
other officers whose appointments are
vested in him in this Constitution.
APPOINTMENT –
is the act of designation by the
executive officer of the individual who
is to exercise the functions of a given
office.

Although the Constitution contains no

provision expressly vesting in the
President the power to remove
executive officials from their posts,
he still has the removal power as it is
implied from his appointing power.
 Control Power
SECTION 17.

The President shall have control of

all the executive departments,
bureaus and offices. He shall
ensure that the laws be faithfully
executed.
CONTROL POWER

– President may alter or modify or

set aside actions of subordinate
officers. He has also the power to
supervise, investigate, suspend or
remove erring officers.
 Military Power
SECTION 18.
The President shall be the
Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces
of the Philippines and whenever it
becomes necessary, he may call out such
armed forces to prevent or suppress
lawless violence, invasion or rebellion….
he may, suspend the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus or place the
Philippines or any part thereof under
martial law.
Restrictions on the President’s power
to declare Martial Law.

• There must be an invasion or rebellion

• The duration shall not exceed 60 days
• The President must submit a report to
Congress within 48 hours after the
declaration
• The declaration may be revoked by
Congress
• The Supreme Court may inquire into the
sufficiency of the factual basis of the
proclamation
 Pardoning Power
SECTION 19.

… the President may grant

reprieves, commutations and pardons …
He shall also have the power to
grant amnesty with the concurrence of
a majority of all the Members of the
Congress.
REPRIEVE –
postponement of the execution of a death
sentence.
COMMUTATION –
reduction of the sentence imposed to a
lesser punishment.
PARDON –
exempts from the punishment the law
inflicts for a crime he has committed.
AMNESTY –
abolishes the offense of which one is
charged.
 Borrowing Power
SECTION 20.

The President may contract or

guarantee foreign loans on behalf of
the Republic of the Philippines with
the prior concurrence of the
Monetary Board, and subject to such
limitations as may be provided by law.
 Diplomatic Power
SECTION 21.

No treaty or international agreement

shall be valid and effective unless
concurred in by at least two-thirds
of all the Members of the Senate.
 Budgetary Power
SECTION 22.

The President shall submit to the

Congress within thirty days from the
opening of every regular session, as the
basis of the general appropriations bill, a
budget of expenditures and sources of
financing, including receipts from
existing and proposed revenue measures.
 Informing Power
SECTION 23.

The President shall address the

Congress at the opening of its
regular session. He may also appear
before it at any other time.
Section 23 gives an opportunity to the
President to give information on the
“state of the nation” and to
recommend such measures to the
legislature as he may deem
necessary and proper.
Chapter 7
 JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Section 1. The judicial power shall be vested
in one Supreme Court and in such lower
courts as may be established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the
courts of justice to settle actual
controversies involving rights which are
legally demandable and enforceable, and to
determine whether or not there has been a
grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack
or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any
branch or instrumentality of the
Government.
 ADJUDICATORY
• DUTY TO ADJUDICATE OR SETTLE
DISPUTES.
a. SETTLE ACTUAL CONTROVERSIES THAT
ARE LEGALLY DEMANDABLE AND
ENFORCEABLE.
b. TO DETERMINE WHETHER THERE HAS BEEN
GRAVE ABUSE OF DISCRETIOIN AMOUNTING
TO LACK OR EXCESS OF JUSRISDICTION ON
THE PART OF ANY BRANCH OR
INSTRUMENTALITY OF THE GOVERNMENT
 POWER OF JUDICIAL
REVIEW
- the doctrine where
legislative and executive
actions are subject to
review by the judiciary.
 COMPOSITION AND
SITTING PROCEDURE
The Supreme Court is composed of
one Chief Justice and 14 Associate
Justices
They decide cases in either en banc
or in division of three, five or seven
members.
 QUALIFICATION AND TERM
OF OFFICE
• NATURAL- BORN CITIZEN
• 40 YRS OF AGE
• A JUDGE OF LOWER COURT OR A
PRACTICING LAWYER FOR ATLEAST 15
YRS
• A PERSON WITH PROVEN
COMPETENCE,INTEGRITY, PROBITY,
AND INDIPENDENCE
– No fixed term of office as a member
of the Supreme Court.
– Once appointed as a SC member,
he/she can serve his office during
good behavior until he reaches the
age of 70, or until he become
incapacitated to discharge the duties
(Section 11).
 JUDICIAL AND BAR
COUNCIL
The Judicial and Bar Council is the
recommending body of the judicial department.
It takes the place of the Commission on
Appointment, as it is tasked to recommend
persons who are take positions in the judicial
department
– The Judicial and Bar Council is under the
supervision of the Supreme Court.
– It is composed of the Chief Justice as the ex officio
chairman,
– the Secretary of Justice,
– and a representative of the Congress as ex officio
members,
– a representative of the Integrated Bar,
– a professor of law,
– a retired Member of the Supreme Court,
– and a representative of the private sector for one
year.
 Powers of the Supreme Court
• To settle actual controversies involving a rights
which are legally demandable and enforceable.
• To determine whether there has been a grave
abuse of power on the part of any branch of the
government.
• To determine the validity or constitutionality of
the laws passed by Congress and the acts by
other departments of the government.
• To interpret the provisions of
the Constitutions, laws and
ordinances
• As a court of last resort, it
renders authoritative judgment
on disputes involving
individuals.
 The Lower Courts
• COURT OF APPEALS- decides cases
appealed from the Regional Trial Courts and
other quasi-judicial bodies
• REGIONAL TRIAL COURT- court in each of
the regions of the country
• METROPOLITAN TRIAL COURT- court in
the Metropolitan are like Metro Manila
• MUNICIPAL TRIAL COURT
court in every city not forming part
of the metropolitan area and in each
municipality
MUNICIPAL CIRCUIT TRIAL
COURT- court with jurisdiction
comprising one or more cities and/or
one or more municipalities.
 SPECIAL COURTS
Those courts created by the Congress for
special cases.
COURT OF TAX APPEALS
it is created under RA 1125 as mandated by
RA 8292.
It has the exclusive power to review on
appeal the decisions of the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue.
• Sandiganbayan
–Created by PD 1606. It hears
and decides corruption cases
involving government official
and employees.
HAVE A HAPPY
SEMESTRAL
BREAK !!!!!
Section 2. The Congress shall have the
power to define, prescribe, and
apportion the jurisdiction of the various
courts but may not deprive the
Supreme Court of its jurisdiction over
cases enumerated in Section 5 hereof.
No law shall be passed
reorganizing the Judiciary when it
undermines the security of tenure of its
Members.
Section 3. The Judiciary shall enjoy fiscal
autonomy. Appropriations for the Judiciary
may not be reduced by the legislature below
the amount appropriated for the previous
year and, after approval, shall be
automatically and regularly released.
Section 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be
composed of a Chief Justice and fourteen
Associate Justices. It may sit en banc or in
its discretion, in division of three, five, or
seven Members. Any vacancy shall be filled
within ninety days from the occurrence
thereof.
• (2) All cases involving the constitutionality of a
treaty, international or executive agreement, or
law, which shall be heard by the Supreme Court
en banc, and all other cases which under the
Rules of Court are required to be heard en banc,
including those involving the constitutionality,
application, or operation of presidential decrees,
proclamations, orders, instructions, ordinances,
and other regulations, shall be decided with the
concurrence of a majority of the Members who
actually took part in the deliberations on the
issues in the case and voted thereon.
• (3) Cases or matters heard by a division shall be
decided or resolved with the concurrence of a
majority of the Members who actually took part
in the deliberations on the issues in the case and
voted thereon, and in no case without the
concurrence of at least three of such Members.
When the required number is not obtained, the
case shall be decided en banc: Provided, that no
doctrine or principle of law laid down by the
court in a decision rendered en banc or in
division may be modified or reversed except by
the court sitting en banc.
Section 5. The Supreme Court shall have the
following powers:
(1) Exercise original jurisdiction over
cases affecting ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls, and over petitions for
certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo
warranto, and habeas corpus.
 (2) Review, revise, reverse, modify, or
affirm on appeal or certiorari, as the law or
the Rules of Court may provide, final
judgments and orders of lower courts in:
(a) All cases in which the constitutionality or
validity of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, presidential decree,
proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or
regulation is in question.
(b) All cases involving the legality of any tax,
impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty
imposed in relation thereto.
(c) All cases in which the jurisdiction of any
lower court is in issue.
(d) All criminal cases in which the penalty
imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher.
(e) All cases in which only an error or question
of law is involved.
(3) Assign temporarily judges of lower
courts to other stations as public
interest may require. Such temporary
assignment shall not exceed six months
without the consent of the judge
concerned.
(4) Order a change of venue or
place of trial to avoid a miscarriage of
justice.
• (5) Promulgate rules concerning the protection
and enforcement of constitutional rights,
pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts,
the admission to the practice of law, the
integrated bar, and legal assistance to the under-
privileged. Such rules shall provide a simplified
and inexpensive procedure for the speedy
disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all
courts of the same grade, and shall not diminish,
increase, or modify substantive rights. Rules of
procedure of special courts and quasi-judicial
bodies shall remain effective unless disapproved
by the Supreme Court.
(6) Appoint all officials and employees of the
Judiciary in accordance with the Civil Service
Law.
Section 6. The Supreme Court shall have
administrative supervision over all courts and the
personnel thereof.
Section 7. (1) No person shall be appointed
Member of the Supreme Court or any lower
collegiate court unless he is a natural-born citizen
of the Philippines. A Member of the Supreme
Court must be at least forty years of age, and
must have been for fifteen years or more, a judge
of a lower court or engaged in the practice of law
in the Philippines.
• FINAL
Chapter 8
CONSTITUTIONAL
COMMISSIONS
Chapter 9
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Chapter 10
ACCOUNTABILITY OF
PUBLIC OFFICIALS
Chapter 11
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND
PATRIMONY
Chapter 12
SOCIAL JUSTICE AND
HUMAN RIGHTS
Chapter 13
 EDUCATION, SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY,ARTS, CULTURE
AND SPORTS
Chapter 14
AMENDMENTS AND
REVISIONS
Chapter 15
GENERAL PROVISIONS AND
TRANSITORY PROVISIONS
Chapter 16
ISSUES AND PROSPECTS ON
CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM
 ACADEMIC POLICIES AND
REGULATIONS
SEC. 11. ATTENDANCE AND
PUNCTUALITY
Students who have incurred 5 accumulated unexcused
absences of the required total number of class periods in a
given semester shall be dropped from that particular class.
Absences due to illness should be supported by a medical
certificate signed by the attending physician.
Students who have incurred 3 accumulated lates are equated to
1 absent.
Reference: URS Student Handbook
Resolution No. 022-191-11